20230221081744113_Sustnm9Changevesus.pdf

Chapter讐r綴

Sust訓nm9 Change ve『sus

豊n菖t脳t~e Decay

Learning objectives

Bytheendofthlschapteryoushouldbeableto:

国璽圃圃圃

 

UnderstandtheCausesofinitiativedecay threatstothesustainabilityof

chan9e.

Distinguishbetweenchangeinitiativesthatare“bla

notbesustained,andthosethatare“praiseworthy.”

ー国璽圃璽圃

 

Distinguishbetweenchangeinitiativesthatare‘‘blamevvorthy′andshould

圏圏瞳園

 

1dentifyandapp1yactionsthatcancontributetothesustainabi1ityofChange・

圏圃 圏 圃

 

Understandthepitfa--sthatcanar鷹e whenseekingtosustainchange,

     

   

romokeod/’?;erence.”

TomBrokaw,journalist

356

 

ChaPte「11

 

S”srq′′7′′7gC’?”′7gel’餅敬′s方7mqmieDecのノ

馴霞圏圏

 

lnitiative Decay andlmProvementEVaPoration

Yourreorganization was

 

implemented

 

successfully.Significantbenefits were

 

achieved.

Revisitingtheinitiativesomemonthslater,however,youfindthatthenew workingprac-

ticesandincreasedperFormance1eve1sappearnottohaVebeen maintained,Thingshave

gonebackto wherethey werebe危reyoustarted. How didthishappen? UnFortunately,thisisacommonstory.Evensuccessfulinitiativescandecay,leadingto“theimprovement

evaporatione節ect”asthegainsarelost.

 

Formanyorga山Zations,itisastrategic 無]perativetoembed,tohave“stickab近t%”andto

ma血tainchangesandtheircontributiontoper危rmance,TMSchapterfbcusesontheProblems

ofsusta出血gchangeandonthepracticalstepsthatcanbetakentoincreasetheprobab近tythatchangesonceimplementedwiuendure,thattheywiUbecomeinstitutionalにedandregarded

asnormalpractice,T垣sisnotanewProblem,hiwingbeen魚mouslyident近edbyLewin(1951)

astheneedto“re丘eeze“behavioroncechangehastakenplace.TheattentionofPractic血g

managersandacadetnlcresearchershas危cusedonthefirsttwostagesofhismodel,“ulぜreez-

ingand“moving.”T1eproblem ofre丑eezing,orsusta”lingchange,islesswellunderstood.

nleremaybeawidesPreadassumptionthatifchangeshavebeensuccessful,theywinauto‐

maticallybesustained.11]atassumption,however,appearstobeincorrect.Susta”lingchange

may中somecasesbemoredif6‐cultthan加lplementingchange中thefirstP1ace,

Findon 海umbe,”OCM:Sustaining Change“(2017,3:33 minutes),

          

SustaiPab道tyゴ畝lpliesthatnew work血g methodsandperあrmancelevelsare maintained

         

あran appropriateperiod orthatnew practices

 

and processes areroutもロizedunt旦they

         

becomeobsolete,W′hatarethecausesofimtiat~edecayγwhatstePscanbetakento加crease

         

theprobab道tythatchangesw皿besustainedandbecomeembeddedintheorganizationas

         

routinepractice?Aswehaveexploredinotherchapters,whatisconsideredtobeachievable

         

withregardtosusta血血gchangedePendsonhow managi鴎gchangeisunderstood.Theviews

         

ofsustainabi亘ty丘omeachinlageofchange managementaresummarizedintablell,1,

TABLEII]lmagesofD4anagingandSustainingChange

-mage

       

ViewofSustainability

D′rector

      

ltistheresponsibilityofthechangemanagertodesignthechangeprocessanddirect

            

otherstocomply,toensurethatplannedobjectivesareachieved.

~ov′goto「

     

Thechangemanagerdesignsthechangeprocesstofitthecontext,recognizingthat

          

modificationswillberequiredandthattheoutcomemaynotbeasintended.

Coretoker

     

Changeoutcomeswillbedeterminedprimarilybycontextualfactors,andnotby

          

managementintervention.

CO。ch

       

Thechangemanager’smainroleistohelpotherstodevelopthecapabilitiesnecessary

          

toachievetheintendedoutcomesofthechange.

′〃terPrefer

     

Thechangemanagerdevelopsanunderstandingofthemeaningandsignificanceofthe

          

changesandwhatwi=countassuccessfuloutcomes.

~urlurer

      

Changeoutcomesareinconstantfluxandarelargelybeyondmanagementcontrol.

Chapterll

 

s”財α′″/″g‐c力α〃gel’ers”sZ″′『′α互veDeじのノ

 

357

Robe「tReisner(2002)examinestheU.S.Posta-Ser‐

vice,which

 

during

 

the

 

l99os,‘‘transformed

 

itself

fromthebuttofsitcomjokesintoaprofitableand

efficiententerprisざ{P,45).By2001,however,mo‐

ra-eandperformancewerelowandlosseswerepre‐

dicted.VVhywasthetransformation

 

notsustained?

Reisner(vicepresidentforstrategicp-anning)b-ames

three”momentum

 

busters’’:the

 

indifferenceofse-

niormanagers,whoregardedsomeaspectsofstrat-

egyasa”distraction”;resistancefromtradeunions,whose

 

roleandvoice

 

hadbeen

 

margina-ized;and

theinabi-itytosteerfundingthroughabudgetpro-

cessthatfavoredtraditionalinitiativesoverlnnova-

tions.lnnovation

 

was

 

aーso

 

stifled

 

by governance

constraints.VVhat

 

one

 

competitor,UPS,achieved,

theU,S,PostaIServicecouldnothaveinitiatedwith-

outa

 

priorhearing

 

process

 

beforethePostaI

 

Rate

Commission,and majorstructuraーchanges would

haverequiredCongressionalsanction.Thesituation

wasexacerbatedbyaweakeconomy,problemswith

e‐commerce,andterroristassaultsontheU,S.PostaI

Service.

  

Reisne s(2002,p.52)conc-usionisoptimistic:”Despitethelimitstoanytransformationeffon,ac-

complishingmeaningfulchangeineventhelargest,mostcompーex,andtraditionboundoforganizations

is

 

achievable.”However,the

 

ーeadership,organlza-

tional,and

 

contextuaー

 

causes

 

ofinitiative

 

decay

needtobeaddressedtosustainthesechanges(Bu-

chananeta-.,2005),

  

VVehavetorecognizethat managementmayhavenodirectcontrolovermanyofthe魚ctorsthatcanjeopardizethesustainabilityofchange.Thatdoes not mean,however,thatitisnotPossibletoanticiPateandtocounterthose 短ctorsinsomemanner.

 

Forchangesto“stick,”theymust“seepintothebloodstream,

“become“thenewnorm,“

“bakedintotheorganization,“or,asKotter(2007,p.103)observes,acceptedas“theway

wedothingsaroundhere.”Thatis,itmustbecomeanintegralpartoftheorganizational

culture,orwhathasalsobeendescribedasthe“mind‐set’’oftheorganization’s members

(LawsonandPrice,2003).This meansthatnewstructures,processes,and workmgprac‐

ticesare nolongerseen as“change,“ withalltheemotional,political,and operational

connotationsthataccompanythatterm.Unlessthishappens,changemayprovetobejust

apassingdiversion,ate1鯖ーporarydisruption.However,asweeXp1oredinchapter5,cu1ture

changeisnotastraightあrwardprocess.ASLou G‐erstner(2002,pp.182and187)once

said,re]庵rringtohisleadershipofthesuccessfultransおormationof1BDd:

lcametosee,inn[lytilneatIBM,thatcultureisn’tjustoneaspectofthegal1rle-itisthe

game.Vision,strategy,marketing,financialmanagement-anymanagementsystem,in 態ct-

cansetyouontherightpathandcancarryyou 免rawhile.Butnoenterprise-whetherinbusiness,government,education,healthcare,oranyareaofhumanendeavor-willsucceed

overthelonghaulifthoseelementsaren’tpartoftheDNA.

 

W〆hatyoucandoiscreatetheconditionsfbrtransfbrlnation.Youcanprovideincen-

tives.Youcandefinethemarketplacerealitiesandgoals,Butthenyouhavetotrust.ln

魚ct,intheend,managementdoesdtchangeculture.M[anagementinvitesthework]ぬrce

itselftochangetheculture.

 

Whatarethe mainthreatstothesustainabilityofchange? Buchanan etal.(2007)identi~thetopten 魚ctorsthatcanleadtoinitiativedecay:

1. 77乃e殻mqzorsα刀dd“泌な move の?・ハイ[anagerswhohavebeensuccessf11latimplement-

 

ingchange maybemoreinterestedin movingontothenextchangechallengethan

  

in

 

staying

 

around

 

食)r

 

aperiod

 

ofrelative

 

stability.ln

 

addition,experienced

 

and

358

 

ChaPte「11

 

溌郡rの′7′′7gCソ7α′7geyeなz俗五7所研かe上そcの’

  

successfulchangeagents maybesoughtbyotherdivisionsororganizations,which

  

haveothernovelchangeagendastoprogress.ltcanbedifficulttoturndownpromo‐

  

tion opportunitiessuchasthese.

2.4cm班加凋めノ角rdeye/op〃7の7Z加s虎mmeα切先′se.Theresponsibi且ty危rdrivingchange

 

isnormally(butnotalways)clear,with あrmalchangeorprQiect managementroles,

  

o賃en‐accomPaniedbysteeringgrouPs,task云orces,andimP1ementationteallls,0nce

  

thechangesareinplaceandoperational,thoseindividualsandgroupsreturntotheir

  

normーa1ro1es. There

 

are

 

change managers,but

 

organiZations

 

tend notto appoint

  

”sustainability managers.”justwhoisaccountable化)rensuringthatthechangesare

  

nowembedded,thattheybecomethenew norm,isoftenunclear,

3, 脇の”ノ/e屯eq′7dexpe′・Ze〃cell魔力〃e”望m mces のe/oszz毎・oz′gAszqげれ′mover,Sta茸train‐

  

ing and developmentprogramsusuallysupportchangeinitiativesthatinvolve new

  

skillsandknowledge.Everyone whoisgoingtobealnヨectedwiube宜lvitedtoattend

  

theseprograms,creatinga”criticalmass“ofParticipants恥rtrainingsessions,How-

  

ever,asindividualssubsequentlyleaveandarereplaced,itmaybedi土ficulttorepeat

  

thosedeveloPmentsessions食)rsmallnumbersofparticipants,Theknowledgethatis

 

lostwhensta賃 membersleaveistherelbrenotreplaced.

4. αd 加るZなαre/′加orzedly肋 recr頑な方.o′77/ess の′7αmにo増α〃ZzqrZom.Linkedto 魚ctor

 

3,newrecruitsbringwiththem habitsand worldngpractices丘om previouseiゴロploy-

  

ers. onceagain,theyareunlikelytobeo”ヨeredretraining,butinsteadexpectedto

 

learn new practices“onthejob”byobservation,Thelikelihoodofinitiativedecay

  

thusincreaseswiththenumーbersofnewrecruits,

5,77乃eZss”esα′7dP′・ess“戸es 的の かZggered 豹eZ刀顔のれ’eαre′70/o′?geryZs汐/e.Aswedis‐

  

cussedinchapter3,organizationsusuallychangeinresponseto acombinationof

  

internalproblems,externalenvironmentalchallenges,and new opportunities,Those

  

triggers,however, may notbedurable;the problemsaresolved,thechallengesare

  

addressed,theopportunitiesaredeveloped.Therationale食)rchangecanthus 魚de

  

withthetriggers,andagainleadtoinitiativedecay.

6. Mellノmq′?αgeな wm7rrodパlie豹eZrol′-ノ′7αge′?〆α品 Forpersonalsatislaction,visibility,and

 

reputation,newly appointed managers

 

o賃en wantto appeartobeinnovative

 

and

 

energetic andto“makea marr ontheirnew organization,This meansenhancing

 

theircareersbydesigningandimplementingtheirownchangeinitiatives.Continuing

 

with workthatwasstartedbyothersislessinterestingandsatis ingandcouldlimit

 

one’spromotionprospects.

7. 月owe魂”sねた欲メメeなαre”s!′7gcozmre′Lあり/e〃7e′?超“o′7Z解放szo 劫o欲 prog〆ess,Suc‐

 

cessfulimplementationdoesnotalwayssilencethepowerbrokers,They mayremain

 

  

ntheirposts,andiftheydidnotwelcomethechanges,they maywaitあropportu-

 

nitiestounderminethechanges.Thisbecomeseasierif魚ctorlapplies;theinitiators

 

arenolongertheretoprotecttheirchanges.

8. 刀7epz〃’切妻“′?7Z′?gル′?dZ′?gr班7so班,Manychangesareanocatedadditional鏡ndingto

 

supporttheimplementation costs.Thiscanincludethetemporaryappointmentof

 

specialiststa音 orexternalconsultantsandthecostoftrainingprogramsto provide

 

new

 

skills

 

and

 

 

llowledge, As

 

those

 

resources

 

are

 

consumed

 

andthetemporary

 

appointmentsandthetrainingcometoanend,supportあrthechangesisweakened

 

andinitiativedecaybecomesmorelikely.

                               

ChaPterll

 

及ぼrの“′′7gCみの唯ever雅俗方?〃ね”兜Deじの’

 

359

9. ○豹erPrZor/『Zes の′?7eo刀szrmm,dZve汀鯛g の云釧”○“α′?〆 形sα‘たes. M[ostorganizations

  

todaydonotsu爺erashortageofinternalandexternalpressures 危rchange.Asother

  

urgentProblemsand opportunitiesarise,thefbcusinevitablyshi宣s awayfrom Past

  

Pressuresandthechangesthatthose Prom‐Pted.lfthosepastProblemshaveindeed

  

beenaddressed,thenitmaybeaPProPriate危rattentionandresourcesto movetomore

  

urgentissues.However,thisw皿generateProblemsifthesh出 血fbcustonewPriorities

  

smlplyrecreatesthesituationthatPastchangeswere 無IP1em‐entedtoaddress.

10. 勘功ザのα〃/eveなszの先“〃/加”ye海”g”e,鯛de川棚s!αsm尤γc加〃gぎ危庇な.TheexPeri‐

  

ence,orthePercePtion,of“too much change,”successFulornot,canthreatensus‐

  

tainabilitybygeneratingadesireto“getbacktonormaL”lnitiativedecaycanresult

  

when managementdoesnotPayattentiontothePaceandtimingofthechangesthat

  

sta賃areexpectedtodealwithandgenerateburnoutandinitiative魚tiguebyattemPt-

  

ingtodrivetoo manychangestooraPidly.

  

lnitiativedecaycanbecausedbymany 魚ctors,atdifiョerentlevelsofanalysis.Several

ofthose 魚ctors maybeoPeratinginagivencontextatanyonetime.lntheabsenceof

Proactive managementstePsto addressthose 魚ctors,initiativedecay,andnotsustained

change,maybethenorm.

′L両曹司

 

Praiseworthy and B1ameworthy Failures

The危ilureofanintended changeisnotalwaysaProblem thatneedsto besolved.Achangecan 魚ilbecauseit wasinaPPropriate 恥rsomereason, Marksandshaw(1995)

ar隊lethat“Productive危ilure”isvaluable,ifanorganizationhasthecaPacitytoaddthe

learningftomsuchexperiencestoitsstoreoflqlowledge,ratherthantoconductawitch

hunttofindwhomtoblame.A1earningorganizationtreatsoccasionalfailureasnatural

andasanoPPortunitytodeveloPabetterunderstandmgandtoi面IProveFuturePer危rmance.Marksandshaw(1995)alsoarguethatanorganizationmaygainmoreinthelongterm丘om aProductive 魚ilurethan 丘om an”unProductivesuccess”ーachangethathasgone

well,butnobodyquitekllowswhy:“駅′emustbedoingsomethingright.“

 

somechanges,iftheydonotmeettheirintendedgoals,mustthere危rebeallowed

to

 

decay.M[ostorganizations,however,dotreatsuch “魚ilures” harshly. Those who

wereresponsible mayevenbePunishedinsome mannerandPerhapsfindthattheir

careeropPortunitieshavebecome morelimited.lnchaPter3,wediscussedthework

ofAmyEd‐mondson(2011,P.50),who describesasPectrum ofreasonsfor魚ilure

(seetablell.2),from blameworthyatonee×treme,topraiseworthyattheother,Not

all

 

these

 

錠ilure

 

modes

 

concern

 

change, but

 

those

 

that

 

do

 

are

 

morelikely to

 

be

Praiseworthy.

  

Ddostmanagers,Edmondsonargues,donotdistinguishblameworthy丘om Praiseworthy

像ilures,treatingthemallequally.ThisisnothelpFul,andisPotentially wasteFul:

VVhen1aske×eCutiVestoconsiderthissPeCtrumandthentoestimーatehOW manyofthe

態iluresintheirorganizationaretrulyblameWorthy,theiranswersareusuallyinsingle

digits-perhaps2%to5%.ButWhenlaskhow manyaretreatedasblameWorthy,theysay

(a化eraPauseoralaugh)70%to90%.Theun貴ortunateconsequenceisthatmany魚辻ures

gounrePortedandtheばlessonsarelost,(Edmondson,2011,P.50)

360

 

CI1aPterll

 

位′瀞の′7′′7gC,7の7geyeな”s力7粥のかe上)ecの’

ln

 

2001,McDonald’sopenedtwofour‐starGolden

Arch

 

hote-s

 

in

 

switzerland.They were

 

distinctive,witha24‐hourMcDonald’srestaurantattachedand

rooms

 

with

 

 

patented

 

curved

 

wall,arch-shaPed

headboards,andacylindrical,see‐throughshower

(thatwaspartiallyinthebedroom).Theideahad

been

 

proposed

 

by

 

the

 

McDonald’s

 

switzer1and

chairman,UrsHammer,inresponsetoapushfrom

the

 

parent

 

company

 

fordiversification

 

and

 

new

ideas・

 

Thehotelswerenotafinancialsuccess.There

wereproblemswiththeinteriordesign(lackofpri-

vacy

 

in

 

the

 

shower), and

 

the

 

phrase

 

”golden

arches“;s

 

not associated

 

with

 

MCDonald’s

 

inGerman‐speakingcountries(italsodidn’thelpthat”arch,

 

when

 

pronounced

 

by

 

German

 

speakers,soundedーikeavulgarGermanwordforposterior),Aーso,and

 

more

 

importantーy,although

 

the

 

restau-

rantventure madeuseofmanyofthecompany’s

core

 

competencies

 

in

 

areas

 

such

 

asfranchisingand

 

reaー

 

estate

 

management,the

 

McDonald’s

TABLE11,2ASpectrumofReasons角rFailure

Reason

           

Description

De“Qnce

     

AnindMduaIChoosest。vioーateaPrescribedProcessorPractice・

    

′nmremon

    

AnindMdualinadvertentlydeviatesfromsPecifications.

       

Lockofob班夢

 

Anindividualdoesn’thavetheskills,cpnditio

Process′nodequ口cy,

 

AcomPetentindividuaーadherestoaPrescribedbutfaultyorincomP1ete

              

Process,

                

Anindividualfacesatasktoodifficulttobeexecutedreliablyeverytime,co 卿

            

卿cesscom 蜘 AProcesscomPosedofmanyelementsbreaksdownwhen-tencounter

                  

interactions,

Uncerfo′nfy

    

A1ackofclarityaboutfutureeventscausesPeoP1etotakeseemingly

  

  

                  

reasonableactionsthatProduceundesiredresults.

                 

窃.

HMPofhes′熊srmg

 

A醐 園imemcmd唖ed 岬 馴 輔 細ni鰯 筋 幽ignwi=

   

         

succeedfails.

                        

Exp′orotorytes土中g

    

AnexPerimentconductedtoexpandknowledgeandinvestigateaPossibility

  

                  

-eadstoanundesiredresult.

brand

 

simp-ydidn’tworkwhen

 

appliedto

 

afour‐

starhotel,

  

However, international marketing

 

professorstefan Michel(2007)arguesthatthedecisionbyMcDonald’stopi-otthisinitiativewasnotasbizarre

asitseemed,Forexample:(1)diversifying

 

intohotelsgaveMcDonald’sachancetotestthemulti-bilーion‐dollar

 

restaurant

 

industry;(2)itrequired

whatwasarelativelysma=investmentforMcDon-

ald’s;(3)thedamagetotheMCDonaldsbrandwas

limitedthroughtheuseofthenameGoldenArches

andrestrictingtheexperimenttoswitzerland;and

(4)thelossesonrealestateandoperations wereinsignificant

 

in

 

reーation

 

tothe

 

overa=

 

McDonald’s

business, Most

 

significantly,the

 

venture

 

was

 

statement

 

ofsupport

 

for

 

entrepreneurial

 

ideas

withinthecompany,andtheoutcomewastreated

asan

 

important,and

 

relativelyinexpensive,learn-

lngexper-ence,

BasedonMichel(2007).

                               

ChaPterll

 

s”s如力7′′?gc月q′?ge・’g′”s方7”′””ve上)ecロン

 

361

  

Changesthat絹江canthere食)rebevaluable,discouragmgfurthere×Perilrlentsofthatkjmd

andreveal血g whatadjustments maybenecessaryto makethenextattemptsuccessful.mobuildsuchalearningculture,e×Perimentationshouldbeencouraged,and魚ilures(including

nearmisses)needtobedetectedandsu萌ectedtoananalysisthatlooksbeyondtheobvious,ltisalsonecessarytoavoidmakjingthe”Fundamentalattributionerror,

”which meansblam-

ingindividualsandignoringthecontextin whichthey wereworking(Ross,1977).

 

Basedonexperienceatachildren’shospitalinMinnesota,Edmondson(2011,pp.52‐53)describesfivepractices食)rbuildinga‘‘

Psychologicallysa熊environment”inwhichtolearn

丘om 魚ilures:

1. 月mme 豹ewo靴 αcc“川解か.Peopleneedasharedunderstandingofthekindsof錠ilures

 

thatcanbeexpectedto occurinagiven workcontext(routineproduction,complex

 

operations,orlnnovation)and whyopennessandcollaborationareimportant危rsuト

 

魚cingandlearning丘omthem,Accurate丘amingdetoぬfies魚ilure,2.Emゎmce′77esse′?gers.Thosewhocome免rwardwithbadnews,questions,concerns,or

 

mistakesshouldberewardedratherthanshot.Celebratethevalueofthenewsfirst,

 

andthenfigureouthowtofiXthe飽ilureandlearn 丘omit.3.4cあの}〆edge/““!な.Beingopenaboutwhatyoudon’tkllow,mistakesyou

’ve made,and

 

whatyoucan’tgetdonealonewillencourageotherstodothesame.

4.膚粥ePα汚れ夢のZo“.Ask云〔)robservationsandideas,andcreateopportunities食)rPeople

 

to detectandanalyze 魚iluresand promoteintelligentexperiments.lnvitingparticipa-

 

tionhelpsdeFuseresistanceandde危nsiveness.

5.Sezわozmdqr!esq〃〆月メメpeop/eαcのzmzq劫e.Paradoxically,people元elpsychologically

 

sa発r whenleaders

 

are

 

clearabout whatacts

 

areblameworthy,A0dthere mustbe

 

consequences.Butifsomeoneispunishedorfired,tellthosedirectlyandindirectly

 

a爺ected whathappenedandwhyitwarrantedblame.

 

杯/ill

 

adoPtingsuch a“so賞” and “understanding” managementapproachto 危ilures

makestaffmorecarelessandencourage more mistakes?Edmondson(2011,p.55)argues

thata 魚ilureto encourageexperimentation,combined witha 魚iluretolearn 丑omtheinevitablemistakes,posesgreaterriskstoorganizationalchangeande爺ectiveness.Change

initiativesthatdonotworkcannotbesustained.However,ifmanagementwantstosustain

thegeneration offurther newideas食)r

 

change,then those who

 

develoP praiseworthy

態iluresshouldberecognizedandrewarded,andnotblamedandpunished,

Findon裟刈れ′be,”Buiーdingapsychologica=ysafeWorkplace:AmyEdmondsonTEDXHGSE”(2014ゴー:26

minutes).

圏霊園園 Actionsto Sustain Change

Vvhatactionswillincreasetheprobabilitythatchangewillbesustained?Nospecific

setofstepscan guaranteesuccess,butawarenessofthethreatstosustainabilitycan

leadtotimelyandeflもctiveresponses.Actiontosecuresustainabilityiso仕enidenti-fiedasthefinalpointinthe“changerecipes

”that we discussedin chapter

 

lo,For

362

 

Chapterll

 

sよぼ′”′′7′′?gc′7の?ge・’gな”sみ7′′′”“1,eDemy

En・ilyLawsonandColinPrice(2003)arguethatthe

successandsustainabilityofchangereーyon

 

peo-

plethinkingdifferentーyabouttheirjobs,andnot

justonpe「suadingthemtochangethe waythey

Work,ThisisparticularlythecaseWithfundamental

changes

 

to

 

organizational

 

culture,for

 

example,fromreactivetop「oactive,fromhie「archicaltocol‐

legial,from

 

introspective

 

to

 

externally

 

focused.Therearefourconditionsforthenecessarychange

inmindsets.

  

First,thosewhoareaffectedbyachangeneedto

understandthepurpose,andagreewithit,Thereis

no

 

pointin

 

managementtelling

 

peoplethatthings

mustbedonedifferent1y:”Anyoneーeading

 

 

major

changeprogram musttaketimetothinkthroughits

example,”institutionalize new approaches

”is step

 

8in Kotter’s(2007)eight‐stepmodeloftransFormationa1change, However,sustainability dependsnotjuston what

h‐aPpens

 

a代er

 

ilnーP1ementation,but

 

also

 

on the

 

cumulative

 

ef元cts

 

ofdecisions

 

and

actions

 

duringthe

 

change process.1n

 

other Words,itis

 

more

 

e”ョectiveto

 

plan おor

sustainability丘omthebeginningthantoregardthisasanissuethatcanbele賞until

alaterstage.

 

Here

 

are

 

eight

 

sets

 

ofactionsthat

 

should be

 

considered when designinga change

initiative,tobuildsustainabilityintotheProcessfromthebeginning,oratleast丘om an

earlystage.

Redesign Roles

organizationalchange,particularly wherenew structures,processes,andtechnologies

areinvolved,oftenleadstotheredesignofeXistingrolesandtothecreationofnew

ones.However,theserolechangesmaybeacriticaldimensionoftheprocess,andnot

justaproductofchange,Beeretal,(1990)arguethat mostchangeprogramsdonot

work becausethey 化)cus

 

on attemptsto

 

change

 

attitudes

 

andbelie超 byintroducing

new perspectives,Theassumptionthatunderpinsthisapproach,thatchangesinbehav‐

Iorwi11Fo11owchangesinattitudes,isintheirView fundamenta11yf1awed,Thecausa1

arrow,they

 

suggest,runs

 

in

 

the

 

opposite

 

direction, Behavior

 

isinfluenced

 

bythe

contextin which

 

peoplefindthemselves-bytheirresponsibilities,relationships,and

roles.lnshort,firstredesignroles,whichrequirenew behaviors,andattitudechange

will

 

then

 

Follow.1t

 

is

 

difficult

 

to

 

revert

 

to

 

past

 

behavior

 

with a

 

new

 

formal

 

role

‘story’--Whatmakesitworthundertaking-andtoe

plainthatstorytoallofthepeopleinvolvedinmak-

ingchangehappen,sothattheircontributionsmake

sensetothemasindividualぎ(p.33),

  

Second,rewardand「ecognitionsystemsneedto

be

 

consistentwiththe

 

new

 

behaviors.Third,staff

musthavethenecessaryski=sandbegiventimeto

absorbnewinformation,linkthattoexistingknowl-

edge,andapplyiteffectivelyinpractice.

  

Andfinally,“they mustseepeopletheyrespect

mode”ingitactively“(p.32).Wealltendto model

ourbehavioron

 

”significantothers“and

 

especia=ythoseininfluentialpositions,Managersata=1eveーs

thusbecomerolemodelsandmust”Walkthetaーk“if

mindsetsaretochange(p,35).

ChaPterll

 

&′sm′′7′′7gC/7の増eye離婚力7mm′1ぞ )ecqi

 

363

Reflecting

 

on

 

his

 

experience

 

of

 

the“momentum

busters”thatderaiーedtransformationalchangeinthe

U.S.PostaIService,RobertReisner(2002,pp.51-52)

identifies”fourhard

 

lessons”fororganizations

 

un-

dertakinga majorchangeinitiativeinaturbulent

economicenvironment:

1. Don’tm′ssyourmoment.肌′e missed

 

numerous

 

market

 

opportunities

 

thatcompetitors

 

such

 

as

 

UPSseized.Furthermore,weーetpassatleasttwo

 

chancesto

 

capitalize

 

oll

 

high

 

morale

 

and

 

mo‐

 

mentum withinthePostaIService,momentsthat

 

providedthebestopportunitytoovercomeorga-

 

nizationalresistancetochange.

2. connectchonge′〃′t′or′VestoyourcorebUs′ness.

 

Mostoftheinnovativeprogramswelaunchedto

 

boostrevenueexistedatthefringesofourbusi‐

  

ness.Andweneverestablishedapathforthem

 

tomigratetotheheartofouroperations.

3. Don’t

 

m′stoke

 

′ncremento′

 

′mprovemenfs

 

 

io「

 

stroteg′ctmnsわ「mot′on.[0]urtremendoussuccess

ln1mprovingdeliverytimes,whichweenthusias‐

tically

 

celebrated,blinded

 

us

 

to

 

the

 

need

 

for

strategicchange.Foratime,weslippedintocom-

pーacency,ignoring

 

our

 

competition

 

and

 

chaー-

lengesand

 

dec1aring

 

ourselvesthe winnerln

 

racewithourselves,

βe

 

reo/′st′coboutyour/′m′ts

 

ondthePoce

 

of

cわonge,[1]nachangeinitiative,itisimportantto

identifywhichobstaclesareinyourcontro1and

whicharen’t.Someofwhatwewantedtodomay

simply

 

not

 

have

 

been

 

possible,atleast

 

atthe

time....W′hilesomeofourconstraints-ourreg-

u1atoryframework,ifnotourverysizeandcom-

pーexity.‐arespecifictous,everyorganizationhas

limitsofonekindoranother,ltmayseemhereti-

caltosaysointhecan-doeilvironmentofAmeri-

canbusiness,butsometimesyouneedtoaccept

those

 

-imits.Afailureto

 

acknowledgethatyou

sometimescon’rdocertainthingscanbreeddis-

couragementandcynicism,ultimatelyundermin-

ingthosechangeinitiativesthatareachievable.

definiti0n,whichis○ne0fanetw○rk‐○fsimilarlyredeSignedr○les.SustainabilityiSn○t

guaranteedbythisapproach butissignificantlyencouraged.

Redesign Reward Systems

Beerand Nohria(2000,p,267)alsoobservethat“there arevirtuallyno 飽ndamental

changesinorganizationsthatd‐o notalsoinvolvesomechangesintherewardsystem.“

Thisisoneconsequenceofredesigningrolesandresponsibilities.Fisher(1995,p.122)

citestheexampleoflntegra Financial,a$14billion(inassets)bankholdingcompany

thatwas恥rmedthroughamerger.Toreinあrcethecompanyscommitmenttoateamwork

initiative, managementimplemented acarefullydesignedevaluation andreward system“to

 

discourage hot‐dogging,grandstanding,filibustering,and otherego games” andto

ensurethat”thebestteamP1ayersgetthegoodiesおFisher(1995,p.122)alsonotes,”〇ne

thingthatyoucancounton:”/hatevergetsrewarded willgetdoneおThisalsomeansthat

whateverisnotrewarded(suchaspre‐changeworkingpractices)willnotgetdone,Chang

ingtherewardsystem canthuscontributesignificantlytosustainabilitybyremovingthefinancialmotivationtoreturntooldbehaviors,

364

 

ChaPterll

 

S”s如力?′′7gC,7口′?ge-’e′s”s方7′′′mn’e 〉eαリノ

  

Rewardsshouldalsoincludepublicrecognition ofbehaviorsthatareconsistentwith

thedesiredchange.Thisbothrein化)rcesindividualbehaviorandsendsstrongsignalsto

others,TheopPositealsoapP1ies,M[anage].lent’s魚iluretoresPondtobehaviorthatisin

directoppositiontothechangeunderminesthecredibilityoftheprogram,Lackofaction

inthisrespectcanincreaserapidlytherateofinitiativedecay,The organization’spay

system canthussupportorderailachangeinitiative,

Linkse1ectionto Change objectives

Sta甘selection,and promotion processes,canbesubtlebutpowerfulwaysin whichto

embedandsustainassumptionsandvalues-tochangeandto maintaintheorganizatioぱs

culture,Aswiththerewardssystem,appointmentsandpromotions,particularlytokeyandinfluentialroles,havesymbolicsignificanceinsignamng whethertop management

reallysupporta change,ornot. A singleinappropriateseniorappointmentduringthechange process

 

can

 

quickly derailalltheimplementation workthathas

 

already been

undertaken.

 

1o

 

support organizational

 

changes with

 

selection,a number oforganizations have

adopted“values-basedrecruitmenぞ

 

systems, which

 

seekto

 

select

 

sta賃 whose motives,attitudes,andvalues

 

support whatthe

 

organizationistryingto

 

achieve,Forexample,Rapping(2009)describesavalues‐basedrecruitment,training,and mentoringprogram

あrselectingand developingpublicde免nderstorepresentpoorclientsincriminalcases

in Georgia,Poordefendantso代enhaveproblems6‐ndinglavyers,whothenrefusetovisit

theminiail,Tochangethistraditionalculture,recruitmentand selection changedto

emphasizevaluesrelatingtoenthusiasticandloyalrepresentation,advocatingtheclient’s

cause,studyingandpreparingthecase,andcommunicatingwiththeclient,

 

官iggeredby魚iluresinqualityofsocialcareinthe UK,Goode(2014)describesa

values-basedrecruitmenttoolkittohe・pemployerstofindpeoplewithvaluesappropriate

to workinginthissector.Thistoolkitincludessamplejobadvertisementsandan online

personalityprofningquestionnaireandsuggestedvalues-based 血terviewquestionssuchas:“VVhatexcitesyouaboutworldnginadultsocialcare?““Canyougiveanexampleofwhere

your understandingofwhat

 

anotherperson maybegoingthrough hashelpedyouto

develop yourcompassion 長)rthatperson?” and”Tell me aboutatime when you have

‘gonetheextra mile’atwork,

”Theanswerstothese鮪Lndsofquestionsrevealcandidates’

behaviorandtheirvalueswithregardtocareandcompassion,

W′alktheTalk

Thisisa well-kllown cHche. However,senior managementcan seriouslyjeopardizethe

sustainabilityofchangeiftheirwordsandactionsareinterpretedbyemployeesassignal‐

ling,“帆/edon’treally meanit.

“ln other words,ifthetopteam doesnotsupportthischange,whyshould we?Littleismoredamagingtothecredibiutyofachangeprogram

thanalackofconsistencybetweenthestatementsandbehaviorsofthechangeadvocates.Evenifmanagementdidnotmeantosendnegativesignals,

”unintentionalhypocrisy”can

beequallydamaging(Fisher,1995),

 

one

 

indicator

 

ofconsistency

 

concerns

 

changes

 

in

 

management practices

 

that

 

are

clearlyalignedwiththegoalsofthechange.Forexample,whoispraisedandpromoted

andwhy?lsmanagemententhusiasticallyadvocatingteamworkwhilestinrewardingindi‐

vidualperあrmance?

 

W〆here

 

areresources-finance,sta茸ing,expertise-beingallocated?

ChaPterll

 

s”s数′用′?gc力α′?ge・’eな”s方7中α”・’eDecαγ

 

365

EarlyinhistimeaschiefexecutiveatProcter&Gamble,

  

communicating

 

the

 

messagethat

 

innovation

 

was

A1an

 

Lafley

 

had

 

to

 

decide

 

whether

 

to

 

aPProve

 

   

p&G’slifeblood.LafleydescribeshisresPonse:”so

majormarketingefforttolaunchseveralnewprod-

  

welockedarmsandwewentahead.lhadtomake

ucts.Thiswou-drequireasignificantcommitmentof

   

choices

 

liketheseto

 

convince

 

P&G managers we

funds,andp&Ghadjustmissedearningstargetstwo

  

vveregoingtogoforwinning“(Guptaand Wendler,

quartersinarow,ButLafleyhadbeenworkinghard

  

2005,p.4).

Thecommitmentofresourcesto aninitiativeinsuch a waythatto withdraw would

beextremely costly conveys unambiguous managementsupport(seethebox“A1anLafley’s MomentofTruth“),風lthese managementdecisionsandactionshavesym-bolicas wellastangiblee掻ects.Schein(2010)arguesthat managerssignal whatisimportantby whattheysystematically payattentionto.

”Co]mmーunication”isnotcon-

finedto conversations, meetings,presentations,and emails,butincludesallmanage-

mentactions-and omissions-thatsend signalsconcerning goalsandpriorities(and

wehavealsotorecognizethatthosesignalsmayormaynotbeinterpretedinthe manner

that managementintended),

Encourage Voluntary Acts oflnitiative

Kotter(2012)emphasizesthevalueofhaving manychangeagentsinanorganization,and

notjustasmalleliteteam,arguingthatvision andstrategyshouldbecomnounicatedin

a waythatcreatesbuyinand attractsagrowing“volunteerarmy”(p.52).Fromtheir

studyofchangeins似 corporations, Beeretal,(1990)concludethatin encouraglng

change,the moste]ぼectivesenlor managersspecifiedthegeneraldirectioninwhichtheywantedthecompanyto move,andleftthedetailsofspecificchangestobedecided”closer

totheaction,”lowerdownintheorganization.They化’undthatchange was morelikely

tobecomeembeddedifthoseattheoperationallevelweresupportedwhentheydeveloped

For

 

themselves

 

the

 

specific

 

changes

 

that

 

they

 

believed

 

appropriate

 

貴)r their

 

local

circumstance.

Measure Progress

A あcuson measurementisimportant危rtworeasons.First,metricsand milestonesare

fundamentaltotrackingtheprogressofchange,highlightingtheneedfbranycorrective

action.Second,whatgets measuredcansignificantlyaぼecthow peopleact,becausemea-

surementsignalstheimportanceofthataspectofperあrmance.Lessattentionispaidto

dimensionsofperformancethatarenot measured.From asurveyofthechangeexperi-

encesofover2,00oexecutives,Ghislanzonietal.(2010,p.8)found‐thattwoofthetop

6‐veproceduresusedbyorganizationswhosechangeshadbeensuccessfulwere“definingdetailed

 

metrics

 

 

brreorganizatio亘s

 

e鎖ect

 

on

 

short-

 

andlong-term perあrmance

 

and

assesslng progressagainstthem” and “usingdetailedplan,splitinto workstreams with

milestones 危rdeliveryandsomeoneaccountable 危rreachingeach.” Progress measure-

mentisthusimportantbothfbrimplementationand 危rsustainability.

366

 

ChaPterll

 

s”射”粥粥gC力α′7ge、’eな”s五7″′研かe上)ecのノ

         

ltisimportantto choose appropriate metrics(seethebox“Change Metrics:The

       

Continental 亙rlines Experience“),David Nadler(1998)arguesthatorganizations

        

should carry outacomprehensive Progresscheckon majorchangeinitiatives within

           

si× monthsa貴erthey havebegun,andthen annuallytherea先er.Thesechecksshould

           

usequantitativeperおorl土lance measures,attitudesurveys,Focusgroups,andindividual

       

interviews. Kanteretal.(1992)suggestthattwokindsof measures are particularly

       

helpful,First,resz′肱 川eqsz′res:How willwe 数lowthatwehaveachievedouro防ectives?

            

Second,″mcess“だα麗‘res: 日ow wilIWeknow that We aredoing whatisnecessaryto

        

achievethoseobjectivesandhowplansmayneedtobeadjusted?ThePrice Waterhouse

       

ChangelntegrationTeam(1995)arguesthatabalancedsetofperfbrmance measures

            

shouldinclude;

           

・ Leαメカぼ ′“eα劃″8品

 

which revealtheimmediate

 

results

 

ofa new initiative,such

 

as

             

changesinprocessingtime,ortimeto market貴)rnew products

           

・ Lqg郡力gmeα鱒‘〆es,suchas負nancialperまた)rmanceandcorporateimage,whichcantake

               

timetobecomeapparent

            

・ Z)7『er′?”/′?7eαs“だs,貴)cusingonintra‐organizationalprocessesande賃iciencies

            

・ E尤Zer刀α/′77eqs,”だs,suchastheperspectiVesofstakeholders,customers,andsuppliers,

             

andhowtheorganizationcompareswithbenchmarkcompetitors

           

・ Cosbαsedmeqs”res,whicharedifectlyfinancial

            

・ 鮎o′?cD財′”eαsz!res,suchas marketshareandbrandimage

              

Exercise

 

ll,l

 

asks youto

 

applythese

 

measuresto

 

a current

 

changein your own

          

organizationortoonewithwhichyouare態miliar.Doallthese measuresapply?lfnot,

        

whynot?

Ce1ebrate En Route

M[onthsoryearscan passbe危retheoutcomesofachangeinitiativearefullyrealized,Thoseinvolvedexpecttoseeevidencethattheire節ortsarerewarded.A1ackofclearevi-

denceofsuccessstrengthenstheviewsofthosewhoinitiallyresistedthechange,Skepticism

concerningthevalueofthechange maythusbeincreasedbydelaysindemonstratingthebene行ts,However,itiso負enthecasethatsometangiblebenefitscanbeidenti賃edatan

earlystageintheprocess,Kotter(2012,P,52)thusarguesthatoneofthe“accelerators”

ofchangeistocelebratesigni丘cantshort‐term w超s,Celebratingtheearlybene賃ts,eveniftheyarerelativelysmallinscale,recognizesandrewardsthosewhoareinvolved,strength‐

ensthecredibnityoftheprogram,andhelpsto weakentheskepticism.

 

lnaddition,thelinksbetween changedsystemsand workingpracticesand organiza-

tionaIPer危rmanceshouldbe madeclear,Sta茸 memberswhohaveto work outthose

links あrthemselves

 

may not make

 

accurate

 

assumptions. APd successes,ifthey are

effectivelypublicizedandwidelyunderstood,canactascatalystsあr鏡rtherchanges(seethebox“Celebrating Successatsandvir).A 範rtherimplicationofthe あcuson cele

brating“enroute”concernstheallocationofresourcestopriorityareas;thoseareasthat

needthe mosturgentattention mayprovidethebestopportunitiestodemonstrateclear

andimmediatebenefits, which

 

can then be

 

celebrated

 

as

 

short‐term wins. Failureto

establishthoseprioritiesatan earlystageinthechangeprocess maybeadirectcause

ofchange魚ilure,

ChaPterlI

 

S婚姻′′7′′?gc方の7ge・桝罰ぼろ7市研かe上)ecのノ

 

367

Chnngt・ (lrl〔~

ContinentalwasoneofAmerica’smajorairlinesunti1

2010,WhenitmergedwithUnited.Beforethat,Con-

tinentaーhadtoughtimes,VVhenGordonBethunebe-

camechiefexecutiveofContinentalinl994,ithad

beenlosingmoneyformostofthepreviousdecade,hadadebt-to‐equityratioof50-to‐1,andhadserved

sometime

 

in

 

Chapterll

 

ofthefederal

 

bankruptcy

code.Duringthis

 

period,Continental

 

had

 

empha‐

sizedcompetingonthebasisofcheaperfaresthan

itsmajorcompetitors.However,althoughitachieved

thelowestrevenueperavailableseatmile(ofthe

majorair-ines),italsohadthelowestrevenueper

availab1eseatmile

 

and

 

 

lossoverall.Bethune

 

re-

flectsonthissituation:

        

lfirm1ybelievethatwhatyoumeasureiswhatyou

        

get.This

 

isan

 

exampleofacompanythatsaid

        

thatitcouーdn’tcompetewiththebigboysunlessit

        

wasabletohavecheaperfares.Thatsetthecuー-

        

tureandmind‐set.So,wehadaculturethatsaid,

         

“Costisever)【ヒhing′’That’sthe Holy Grail. We

        

evenhadpilotsturningdowntheair‐conditioning

        

and

 

slowingdownairplanestosavethecostof

        

fuel.They made

 

passengers

 

hot,mad

 

and

 

late.

        

Tharsadysfunctionalmeasure,ameasuresome

        

accountant

 

dreamed

 

up

 

Who

 

does

 

not

 

under‐

        

standourbusiness.

          

BethunerespondedbyinvestigatingWhatfactors

        

most

 

influenced

 

passengers’level

 

of

 

satisfaction

        

Withairlines.Thisreveaーedthaton‐timeperformance

        

wasthemostsignificantfactor.Unfortunately,atthe

        

timeofBethune’sarrival,Continentalrankedtenthof

      

  

thelolargestU.S.carriersonthiscriterion.Nonethe-

        

less,Bethunechangedthecore metricusedinside

        

Continentaltoon‐timeperformance:

 

W′eusethatmeasurefortwo

 

reasons,onebe‐

 

causeitisthesing-emostvitalsignofafunction-

 

ingairline,andtwo,it’srankedbyourGovernment

 

andwecan’tscrewthemetrics,

 

下o

 

reinforcethe

 

centralityofthisfactor,a

 

new

systemofrewardswasestab”shedinwhichbonuses

were

 

paidtoall

 

staffeach

 

monththatContinental

wasrankedinthetopfiveofthelolargestU.S,carri-

ersforon‐timeperformance.Thecostofthebonus

paymentswasmorethancoveredbythereduction

inthe amount--thathad

 

risento $6 miーlion

 

per

month-that

 

Continental

 

had been

 

paying

 

to

 

put

passengersonotherairlines,putthemupinhotels,busthemacrosstown,andsoforth.

 

The

 

nextmonth,Marchl995,we wound

 

up

 

in

  

firstplace.恥′ehad

 

neverbeeninfirstplacein

 

60years.l

 

mean,Continentaー,the worstcom‐

  

pany

 

in

 

America

 

forthe

 

-ast

 

20years,isfirst

  

place

 

in

 

”ontime“which

 

isa metriceveryone

  

kindofunderstands,

 

Byl996(andagaininl997),Continentalhadwon

theJ.D.Power&Associatesawardforcustomersat‐

isfactionasthebestair1ineforf1ightsof500milesor

more

 

and

 

Was

 

inthetopthree

 

intermsoffewest

customercomplaintsand

 

lostbaggage.Froml995

to

 

l998,Continental’s market

 

capitalization

 

rose

from$230millionto$3bi--ion.

CaseSource

Kurtzman,J.1998.Paying

 

attentionto whatreally

 

counts,Arfof恥文中9Cho噂e3(1):1-12,Copyright

  

◎1998」oeIKurtzman.AI1rightsreserved.Used

  

withpermlsslon.

Fine-Tuning

Despitecarefuladvance planning, mostchangeinitiativesdonotunあldasanticipated.

Theneed危rcorrectiveactionistobeexpected.N1a檀ngtimely modificationsinthelight

ofexperience willnormallybe moree鎖ectivethan attempting notto deviate 丘om the

plan,Problems

 

arisefbrtwo main reasons.First,by definition,theimplementation of

changealwaysinvolvesdoingsomethingnew,somethingthathasneverbeendonebe危re,

A particulartypeofchangeprogram may,ofcourse,havebeenimplementedinanother

368

 

ChaPterlI

 

S″””′′?′′?gC乃”′?gelぞ′”s万7/′mm形上)ecdji

 

C(.k・1)rntin9 SL1cc〔・~~ ntsnndvi

 

(・k・1)rntin9 SL1cc〔・~~ ntsnndvi

sandvikAB

 

makes

 

advanced

 

alloys

 

and

 

ceramics,employs42,00opeople,andhassalesin160coun-tries.VVhenachangeprogramfocusin9onbusiness

processeswasintroduced,someofsandvik’sunitsachieved

 

significant

 

improvements,People

 

fromthese

 

units

 

then

 

visited

 

other

 

units,particularlywhere

 

there

 

was

 

skepticism

 

about

 

the

 

change.These

 

visits

 

spread

 

knowledge

 

ofsuccesses

 

andhelpedotherunitsseewhatimprovementscouldbeachievedthrou9hthechangeinitiative,Later,whenakeyfinancialtargetwasreached,thiswasacknowl-edgedbyhavingaphotographtakenofthesandvik

management

 

team standing

 

on

 

top

 

of

 

 

piーe

 

of

division,oranotherorganization-butthatchangewillalwaysbenew here,inthisorgan.-zation,inthisdivision,atthistilne,食)rthesereasons,withthoseresources,a節ecting。urstaff.lnotherwords,change managementalwaysinvolves“buildingtheplaneasyouflコ”’

anditisnotsurPrisingifParts 魚11off.Second,organizati。nalchangesare multifaceted,a]mectingmanydi節erent魚ct。rs,whicharethemselvesinterlinked,ltistherelt)redifficultto anticipateallthe”knockon“eaヨectsor”ripples

,’thatachangeinoneareawinhaveelsewhere.

  

Forthechange manager,thismeansa‘考ustingandrefiningaspectsoftheimplementa-tion Process withoutthisbeingseen asan admissionof態ilure.Thiscanbedifficultinpractice,becauseas”wehavelearnedfrom e×perience

”can alsobedescribedas,“you

mademistakesintheplanning.”Thiscanbeaddressedbycommunicatingthe丘ne‐tuning

intermsofconsistencywiththeoriginalgoals,Aswehaven。tedelsewhere,partofthechange managementresponsibilityistohelpothersto makesense。fwhatishaPpening,toshapeandtoretellthestory,andtoexP1ainthatthecoreprinciplesthatliebehindthechangeremainintact.

lnl995,FordMotorcompanyintroducedaseriesof

changes

 

to

 

the

 

way

 

the company

 

designed

 

and

manufactured

 

its

 

cars

 

and

 

trucks.This

 

involved

changingfromanexistingfunctionalstructure,con-so-idatingactivitiesintofivevehiclecenters,andus‐ing

 

 

reduced

 

number

 

ofplatformsforitsvehiclerange.Afterayearanda

 

half,seniormanagementdecidedto make modificationsinlightoftheinitial

experience,However,somegroupsandindividuaーs,

bothinsidethecompanyandinthefinancialcommu-nity,viewedthechangeswithsomeskepticism,Asaresult,whenthetimecametoannouncethemodifi-cations(forexample,consolidatingfurtherfromfivetothreevehiclecenters),thecompanypaidalotof

attentionto

 

making

 

surethatthefurtherchangeswerepresentedasarefinement,thatis,alogicalad-justmentcompletelyinkeeping withthespiritandintentoftheoriginalchange(Nadler,1988).

gravel.However,accordingtosandvikPresidentPe‐ter

 

Gossas,”VVhen

 

we

 

looked

 

at

 

the photo

 

wethought,

‘es,successshouldbecelebratedbuthey,thisisthewron9message′Soweaddedfivebigger

pilestosymbolizemountainswehaveyettoclimb”

(AhlbergandNaucー6r,2007,p.4).

caseSources

Ahlberg,J.,and Naucler,T.2007.Leadingchange:

  

Aninten′iewwithsandvik,SPeterGossas.ハイ7cにmsey

 

Qリorfer夕,January:1-3,

https://www,home.sandvik(2019),

Chapterll

 

s〃srα粥粥gC/m′?gel勿”s力7mm′1’eDecの’

 

369

TABLEI1.3M[anagingthelmprovementEvaporation霧f発ct

Actions

                    

SustainabilityCautions

ustainability“meansinyourcontext

   

Donotdefersustainabilityplanning,assomemodes

timescale.

                  

ofdeVelopmentandchangeimpーementatlonwill

                             

damagesustainability.

tors(contextual,temporal,

      

Donotexpectchangestosurvivebecausetheyare

,poーiticaー)thataffectthesustainability

 

now working;staffleave,resourcesarereallocated,

sinyourcontext.

             

novelideasbecomefamiliar.

atcombinationoffactorsyoucan

    

Donotignoretheriskfactors;ifyouareunableto

justtoincreasetheprobabiーityof

   

sustainsuccessfuIChanges,thatwillreducethe

nge.

                      

probabilityofothersitesadaptingtheapproachand

                               

jeopardizefuturechanges.

pportconditionsandimplementan

   

Donotalloweffortstosustainchangetoblockthe

ixofpreventiveanddevelopmental

   

developmentofothergoodideas.

uragechangestodecaywhentheyno

 

Donotwithdrawpreventiveanddevelopmental

0ntextorWhenbettermethods

      

maintenanceaslongasyouwishtheapproachto

ble.

                     

besustained.

tOSurVI

e,resOU

Source:BasedonBuchananetal.(2007).

             

lnthissection,wehavediscussedeightsetsofactionstoconsiderwhendesigninga

           

changeinitiative,tobuildsustainabilityintotheProcess丘omthebeginning,oratleast

           

丘om anearlystage.Theseincluderedesignroles,redesignrewardsystems,linkselection

        

toorganizationalo鰯ectives,walkthetalk,encouragevoluntaryactsofinitiative,measure

            

Progress,celebrateenroute,andfine‐tuning,Finally,basedonastudybyDavidBuchanan

       

etal,(2007)oftheU‐K NationaIHealthService,oneofthelargestemP1oyingorganiza‐

         

tionsintheworld,table

 

ll.3summarizeskeysustainability‘‘actionsandcautions.

“This

        

researchemphasizesthatsustainabilityreliesonlocalmanagementjudgement,andontwo

            

mainFormsofaction:PreventiVe maintenanceanddeveloPmentalmaintenance,fireve月ZZve

           

mの“だ刀α刀鑑 involves

 

action to

 

sustain the

 

status

 

quo,to keeP

 

neW working Practices

        

operatingasintended,andto meetPredeterminedtargetsand o覇ectives,Deveわ要men超/

           

mα粥ze“α刀ceinvolvescontinuingto adaPtthechangestolocalcircumstancestosustain

        

animprovementtr可ectory,toexceedexPectations,andto meethighertargets.Preventive

            

maintenancesustainsthechanges;develOPmental maintenancebothsustainsandbuilds

             

onthebenefits.

窯0縞園 W′ordsof「Warning

            

ltcanbediITicultto managesustainabilitya代erachange hasbeensuccessfullyimP1e-

           

mented;bythen,itmaybetoolate.Buildingsustainabilityintoachangeinitiative丘om

           

thebeginning Provides

 

no

 

secure guarantees,butitis

 

morelikelyto

 

be

 

an

 

e”ヨective

           

aPproach.However,thereareanumberoffurther魚ctorsaboutwhichthechangemanager

             

needstobeaware.

370

 

ChaPterll

 

Sz′s超′′7′′?gC/70′?ge・’甥s”sム7mdr′-’eDec(幻ノ

Expectthe Unanticipated

M[ostchangej中止tiativesw皿generateunanticiPatedconsequences,u〕messthel血ksbetweenthechangesandoutcomesarecontroUableandPredictable(w垣chisrare),Unanticipatedconse

quencesmaybePositiveandsupportthechangeProcess.Fore×ample,sta甘 maydemonstrate

greaterlevelsofenthusiasm andco立山nitmentto makj鴎gthechangesworkthan wasin亘tiallyanticipated;costsaving maybehigherthanP1armed;processingtholesmaybecutmoredra-matically.〇ntheotherhand,supportmaybe more出血tedthanexPected,caus無gdisruptionanddelay;costsav血gs maynot materialize;tmlesavi中gs maybe minimal, Unanticipated

outcomesarenotnecessa証yasignofmanagement魚ilure;incomple×changeProcesses,theunexpectedistobee文Pected.NoamountofcareFuIPreplann血gis]股elytoovercomethis,

 

Thechange managementchallengeistoresPondintimelyandapPropriatewaystotheunexPected,which,onsomeoccasions,maybeearlywarningsofmoreseriousProblems,requlr・ngacombinationofresilienceandimprovisation.

U11nnti(iPnに・d con~甑 胆g1IC手・~霊、tFg馬IE

FederaIExpress(FedEx)introducedanew aircraft

routingsystem withtheintentionofincreasingthe

productivityofits

 

pilots,Morepowerful

 

computersand

 

developments

 

in

 

scheduling

 

a1gorithms

 

madethisseemfeasible,theestimatedsavingsinthehun‐dredsofmillionsofdollarsmadeitattractive,andthe

piーotshadarecordofsupportingmeasuresintendedtoimprovecompetitiveefficiencies,

  

However,thingsdidnotworkoutasplanned,Thenewsystem

 

producedflightplansthatrequired

 

pi-ーotstocrossthetimezonesoftwohemispheres,un-dertakeback‐to‐backtrans‐Pacificandtrans‐At-anticflights,andspendhourstravellingbylandtochangeaircraft.EffortsbyFedExtoimprovetheworkingof

thenewsystemfailedtoproduceanyimprovement,

Bewarethe Limitations of Measurement

Thebenefitsderived 官om new waysofdoingthings(onlinecustomersatis魚ction,brandimage,andreputation) may notimmediatelybereflectedintraditional measures(salesPersquare 危ot,stockturnover, marketshare).Thecredibilityofa newidea maybethreatenedifitdoesnotsucceedonestablishedcriteria.However,inso]mecircumstances,a change mayberegarded

 

as

 

successfuleven wheretheintended aimshave notbeenmet-such asa majorProcessredesigninitiativethatachieved 篤woftheintendedgoalsbutthatincreasedthe organization’sreceptivenessto and capacity貴)rfurtherchanges,Assessingthee”ヨectivenessofchangeistherelbrecomplexandchallenging,

  

“Premature measurement”can also createProblems,Asdiscussed ear日er,celebratingshort‐term w立lscanbevaluable,but measuringtheoverallsuccessofachangeinitiativeshouldberelatedtothetiln‐escaleoverwhichbene云itsareexpectedtobedelivered,A化)cus

BasedonPascaーeetaL(2000).

  

Faced

 

withthe

 

prospectofa

 

strike

 

bythe

 

pi‐lots--whichwouldhavebeenthefirstpilotstrikeinthe

 

company’s

 

history--FedEx

 

management

 

re-lented, and

 

the

 

new

 

scheduling system

 

wasabandoned.

butthecompanypersistedwiththenewsystem,lnresponse,thepilots’union,despitehavingareputa-tionforcompliancewithmanagementrequirements,threateneda workstoppa9eifthesystem wasnot

abandoned.Then,havingtakenthisstance,theirde-mands

 

extended

 

to

 

 

substantial

 

wage

 

increase,fewer

 

flying

 

hours, and

 

improved

 

retirementbenefits.

                               

Chapterl1

 

&ノsrq“7′′7gc乃α′?gel’eな”s方7mom’eDecの′

 

371

onshort‐term gainsandquickfixescan WeakenthePersistenCethatiso賞enrequifedto

achievegainsthatdevelop overalongerperiod.lnaddition,organizationalchangerarely

flowsm alinear錠shion,andtheoutcomestendtobeshapedbythecombination and

interactionofmultiP1e魚ctors.Attimes,changemayappeartobeprogressingrapidly,While

atothertm1es,itmayappeartohaVestaued.1nso]me mstances,performance maydeteri‐

oratebe節reitimproves,aspeoplelearn howtoadjusttoand Work with new structures

systems,procedures,andpractices.Thisinitialdip免11owedbyanuptickinperあrmance

is]blownasthe”}-curve“(seeFigure ロ.1),Thisisalsoknownas”Kanter’slaw’’(chapter

lo),Whichstatesthat“Everythingcanlooklikea魚ilureinthemiddle”(Kanter,2009).

 

Theshapeofthei‐curve,andthet中lescaleoverwhichitoperates,Walofcoursevary丘om

onesettingtoanother(per恥rmance m砂 notdipinsomecasesand mayneverrecoverln

others).Assessmentofhow we旦achangeisProgressingmustconsidernotonlyWhich metrics

toapply,butalsothet血ロingofthose measurements.Thei‐curvecanbehelp粒lin managmg

theexpectationsofothers,Withregardtojust正yingadeteriorationinperあrmance,andalso

eXP1ai1lingtherateatWhichthebenefitsofthechangeare錠kelytobeComeaPparent.

FIGUREII.I

TheJ‐Curve

orl9inalperformanceleveI

                           

Time

Beware Premature Declaration ofVictory

Embeddingandsustainingorganizationalculturechangecantakeaconsiderableamount

oftime.-yearslnsomecases. For anytransit)rmationalchange,Kotter(2012,p.52)

advisesthechange managerto“neverletup;keeplearning 丘om e×perience;anddon’t

declarevictorytoosoon.”ln otherWords,celebratethewins,butdonotdeclareoverall

victory,Untilachangeisfirmlyembedded,thepossibilityofareturntopreviousworldLng

practiceswillremainpossible,TheremaybesignificantnumbersofpeopleWhoarehoping

thatthechangeWillnotsucceedandthat”thingswillreturntonormal.“Those who定el

thiswaymaynotmaketheirviewsknown,APneFisherusestheterm”viciouscompliance

todescribethoseWhodisplaysupportinpublic(“theyWillnodandsmileandagreeWith

ever質hingthatyousEー〆)butareresentflllofthechangeandare Waiting化)rtheoPpor

tunitytoreturntothe“oldWays”ofworldLngtowhichtheyremaincommitted.

372

 

ChaPterlI

 

S”s′”m″7gC,7”′?gel初”s万7“′”!′・’e上)ec(リノ

Bewarethe Escalation ofCom mitment

ltisimPortanttorecognizethatnotalIProPosedchangesaregoingtobebene行cial(deBarros 発ixeiraetal,,2019),lfachangeisnotproducingthedes立edoutcome,thenthismaybea”

Praiseworthy魚ilure,”whichitwouldbewisetodiscontinue.H[owever,itiSalso

wisetoguardagainsttheunderstandabletendencyoftheadvocatesofthischangetoarguethat 魚ilureto

 

deliveris

 

duetoinsu茸icientfundingandthatmoretimeisneededtodemonstratethebeneEits.lfthoseargumentsareaccePted,thenfurtherresourceswillbeallocatedtotheinitiative,creatingan“escalationofcommitment,

”BarryStawandjerryRoss(2004)identi fbur 魚ctorsthatcanleadtoescalation:

1.Prのecrdere削げ′似〃鳶,Commitmentislikelytoincrease wherethelackofptogressis

  

consideredtobeduetoatemporaryproblem,whereadditionalfundingisconsidered

  

likelytobee鎖ective,orwheretherelativePayo賃tocome丘omadditionalinvestment

  

lsconsideredtobelarge.

2,P切ノcんo/og!cq/〆鋤け′7山脇“嵐 “SunkcostsarenotsunkPsychologically.“Escalationcan

 

result 丘om sel萄ustification biases.This haPpens when you have been Personally

 

resPonsible危radecisionandwanttoavoidbeingassociatedwithlosses,soyou maln-

 

tainyourcommitment.3.sodα/〆ezer“?Z“”′?俗.Escalation mayoccurasthosemostcloselyidenti賃edwithapr噂-

 

ectcommitmoreresourcesinanattempttoreviveitandtherebysave魚cebynotbeing

 

associated witha 魚ilure.ThisresPonseisencouragedbytheexistenceof“the hero

 

e鎖ect”orthe“speciaIPraiseandadoration 和rmanagerswho‘sticktotheilgtlns’in

 

the 魚ceofopPositionandseeminglybleakodds”(StawandRoss,2004,P.209),4. 0増の7ZzqzZo′?〆 〆e定形““の2な.0rganizationalunitsarelikelytoresisttheabandonment

 

ofaprojectthatisseenascentraltotheiridentity,Staw and Rosscitetheexampleof

 

the aerospace and defensecomPany Lock立]eed N[artin’sL1olI

 

Tri‐StarJetProgram,

 

arguingthatthecomPanyPersisted withthisPr噂ect 免r morethanadecade,despite

 

hugelosses-andPredictionsthatitwasunlikelytoearnaPro6rt-becausetoabandon

 

itwouldhave meantadmittingthattheyweresimplyade免nsecontractorandnot,as

 

theypre危rredtobelieve,aploneerlncommercialaircra賞.

 

Howcanescalationofcommitmentbeavoided?N[arkKeiland RamiroM[ontealegre(2000)identiルthe危1lowingadvice:

 

Don’tignorenegative舵edbackorexternaIPressure,8

 

HireanexternalassessortoprovideanindePendentview onProgress,・ Doαtbea丘aidtowithhold 急rtherresourcesand鏡nd血g;aswellas社ロロtinglosses,ithas

 

symbolicvalueinthatitisa魚blyemPhaticsignalthatthereisconcern withprogress,e

 

Look食)roPPortunitiestoredefinetheProblemandtherebygenerateideas云orcourses

  

ofaction otherthantheonebeingabandoned,o

 

A江anageimpressions,Framethe”de‐escalation“ina waythatsaves危lce.o

 

Prepareyourstakeholdersbecause,iftheysharedtheinitialbeliefintherationale免r

 

thechange,the立reactiontoanannouncementoftheabandonmentofthechange may

 

betoresist,

・ Look危roPPortunitiestodeinstitutionalizetheProject,thatis,to makeclearthatthe

 

PrQiectisnotacentraldefin血g危atureoftheorganization,sothat”steppingbacr does

 

notimplyany weakeningofcommitmenttothecentralmissionoftheorganization.

Chapter.・

 

s”””′7″7gc/7の7ge・,げ伽sム?/!′”r′陀 )ecのノ

 

373

 

DipankarGhosh(1997)suggeststhree 位rtherstepsthatcanhelptoreducetheesca‐

lationofcommitment.First mm?汐辱めz‘sたed加ckonprogressreducesescalation;where

熊edbackisambiguous,thetendencytofilterin化)nnationselectivelycanleadtoescalation

bythose who

 

are

 

already committedtothe

 

change.Second,provide

 

regzdqrProgress

re二pop棚 includinge×P1anations化)rdeviations丘om budget.lfprogressreportsarenota

requirement,thentheywillnotnecessarilyberequestedbelt)refurtherresourcesarecom‐

mitted.Third,provideZ頒omm加〃o〃ル”肥らe粥秀懇lntheabsenceofthesedata,decisions

willbetooheavilyinfluencedbyhistoricalcosts,

 

Awarenessofthe Phenomenon ofescalation ofcommitmentisthestarting point賞)r

identi尊ingsolutions, However,thiscanbeacha”engingproblem to manageasthe 血ebetweenanoPtimistic

”cando“attitudeandoyer‐commitmentcanbediaFicu.ttoestabush・

Recognize Deep Structures

Tounderstandwhatisinvolvedinproducingsustainedorganizationalchange,itisimport‐

anttorecognizetwodi強erentandcoexistinglevelsofanalysis(C1ausenandKragh,2019).FirstisthelevelofsPecificchangeprqiectsthatmayberelativelysur錠celevelphenomena,

inthesensethattheydonotdisruptorsignificantlychallengekeyaspectsofunderlying

culturalandpowerrelationshiPs.Secondisthelevelof“deepstructures”involvingembed‐

dedsenses

 

ofidentityand normativebelie危that,as notedinchaPter

 

8,can generate

resistance.Surlace‐levelchangesstillneedtobewellmanaged astheyarenotimmune

丑om negativereactions,buttheyaretypicallylesscomP1e×貴)rmsofchangeto manage

thanthose wheredeePstructuresareinvolved.

」effreyPfeffer(2010)arguesthat,tobuildsustain-

ableorganizations,Weneedtotreathumansustain-

ability

 

as

 

seriously

 

as

 

we

 

do

 

environmental

 

and

ecological

 

concerns. organizational

 

poliCies

 

and

managementpracticesinfluencethehum・anandso-

cialenvironmentandaffectemployeewell‐beingin

Var1ousways:provlslonofhealthinsurance,effects

oflayoffs,workinghoursandwork‐lifebalance,job

design

 

and

 

stress,income

 

inequa畢ities,organlza-

tionalculture,andemotionalclimate:

Companiesthatdonotprovidehealthinsurance,laypeopーeoff,payinadequatewages,andhave

work

 

arrangements

 

that

 

stress and

 

overwork

their

 

employees

 

also

 

impose

 

externaーities

 

that

others

 

payforeven

 

astheysaveontheirown

costs,(p.42)

 

However,”green

 

managementr

 

which

 

is

 

con-

ce「ned with

 

environmentalawareness,energyeffi-

ciency,andcarbonemissions,hasnotbeenmatched

by

 

 

paralleー

 

focus

 

on employee

 

welfare,“even

thoughthatmightbeaninterestingandinformative

indicator

 

ofwhat

 

companies

 

aredoing

 

aboutthe

sustainabilityoftheirpeoP1ざ(p,36},Actionsaffect-

ingthephysica-environmenta「emorevisible:

 

ou

 

can

 

seethe

 

icebergs

 

melting,poーar

 

bears

 

stranded,forests

 

cut

 

down,and

 

mountaintops

 

reshaped

 

by

 

mining,and experience

 

firsthand

 

thedirtyairandwaterthatcancomefromcom‐

  

panyeconomicactivitiesthatimposeexternalities,

  

Reduced-ifeexpectancyandpoorerphysicaland

  

mental

 

healthstatusare morehiddenfromview.

  

Eventheoccasionalandwell‐publicizedactofem‐

  

ployee

 

or

 

e employee

 

violence has

 

multiple

  

causesandiso代enseenasaberrantbehaviorout-

  

sideofthe

 

control

 

and「esponsibilityofthe

 

em‐

 

ployer.(p.41)

  

Pfefferproposes

 

 

research

 

agendatoexplore

theimpーicationsof”humansustainab”ity“po畢icieson

bothemployeewelfareandorganizationaleffective‐

ness.VVhatstepsisyourorganizationtakingtoad-

dresshumanandsocialsustainability?VVhatfurther

actionwouldbedesirable,andwhy?

374

 

Chapter”

 

s”””“”′7gC77の壌eyeな”sム7′“”〃、ぞDecのノ

EXERCISE

   

1tishelpfultoconsiderappropriate measuresofsuccessforachangeinitiative.Thinking竹川

       

ofachangeinitiativethatiscurrentlyunderwayinyourorganization(orachangethat

48α超′にed

  

istakingp-aceinanorganizationwithwhichyouare『ami1iar},identifythe measuresthat

serザ

    

youthinkshou1d beapp1ied,and-isttheminthefo=owingtab1e.Bytickingtheappro‐

ルを餌冴es

   

priatecolumn(ノ),note whichtypeofmeasuresyouhaveidentified.ltmaybePossible

           

toclassifyanyone measurein morethanonecategory;brandimage,forexample,may

             

beーagging,external,andnoncost.

  

lfthe measuresthatyouareproposingdonotinc-udeaーlsixtypesofmeasures,youneedto

 

expーain

 

whythe“missing”types

 

are

 

not

 

inc-uded,lfyoucannotgive

 

 

goodexpーanation,you mayneedtoproposeadditionalmeasures.

Measure

            

Leading

 

1,..,,.,・,・.・,・.,

2,...,.,・・,..,= ‘

3... ” ,.・ ” =.=.

4.,..,. “ ”‘.= -

TypeofMeasure

Leading

 

Lagging

  

lnternaI

  

ExternaI Cost

  

Noncost

        

5.,.,...・・・・ ” . ”

EXERCISE

   

Earlierinthischapter,weidentifiedthetoptencausesofinitiativedecay.Whichofthese竹.2

       

factorsapplytotherecentchangesinyourorganization? ぬ′hatadditionaーfactors,not 蜘厳

島mentioned

 

here,could

 

cause

 

initiative

 

decay

 

in

 

your

 

organization? Considering

 

eachcauseinturn,whattreatmentwouldyouprescribetoavoidorreducethedecay?

Cause

1,

 

lnitiatorsmoveon.

2.

 

Accountabilitybecomesdiffuse.

3,

 

Knowledgelostthroughstaffturnover,

4,

 

01dhabitsimportedwithnewrecruits,

5.

 

Changetriggersnolongervisible.

6,

 

New managerswiththeirownagendas.

7.

 

Powerbrokersblockingprogress.

8.

 

Pump‐primin9fundshaverunout.

9.

 

otherprioritiesdivertingattention.

10,

 

lnitiativefatigue,lackofenthusiasm.

       

11,

 

other.

PrescribedTreatment

         

12,

 

other,

ChaPterll

 

S”sm/′?力7gCたα′7ge、ぞ′”s方7〃′m′1’ePβcのノ

 

375

EXERCISE

   

Wediscussedthe 2003 Co′〃mb′o shuttle disasterin

 

chapter3.There,we exploredll.3

      

reasons whyorganizations(inthiscase NASA)oftenfaiーtochangefo=owingaccidents

717ze

       

suchasthisone,havingPreviouslylosttheshuttleChallengerinl986,Wealsoexpーored

cカメを“8げ

   

theorganizationalcultureatNASAinchaPter5,emphasizin9that,Whilethebーamefor

α“〆

       

bothshuttlelosses waslinkedtotechnicalproblems,the moresignificantcontributory

           

factors

 

lay with

 

leadership, management,and

 

organizational

 

cultureissues.This

 

is

 

acαzmのZα

   

familiarPattern,seenin manymajorcatastroPhes・Hereisafulleraccountofbothdisas‐

s勿‘rずを

     

ters,whichcontainlessonsconcerning organizationalchangeingeneralandthesus

Dなαsze都

    

tainabilityofchangeinParticular,SPaceexP1orationisuniquein manyrespects,butfrom

           

achange managementperspective,thelessonsfromthisexperlencea「egenerlc.

璽璽璽璽

    

Asyou「eadthiscaseaccount,considerthefo=owingquestions:

          

1. VVhataspectsofNASApracticerevealedfollowingtheCo/Umb′odisaste「suggestthat

             

the

 

changesthat were

 

recommendedfollowing

 

the

 

c力O″engerdisaster Were

 

not

           

sustained?

2.This

 

chapter

 

has

 

discussed

 

actions

 

that

 

can

 

betaken

 

to sustain

 

change.ln

 

your

 

judgment,which ofthefollowing would have been mostusefulto NASA afterthe

  

Cho〃engerdisaster?

  

 

Redesignroles.

  

 

Redesignrewardsystems.

 

 

Linkselectiontoorganizationalobjectives.

  

 

VVaikthetalk,

  

 

Encouragevo-untaryactsofinitiative.

 

 

MeasureProgress.

  

 

Celebrateenroute.

  

 

Fine-tuning.

3.Thischapterhasexplained”wordsofwarning”intermsofwhattobealerttoinregard

 

tosustainingchange.VVhichofthefolーowingdoyouseeas mostaPP1icableto NASA?

  

 

Recognizeproductive,praiseworthyfailures.

 

 

ExpecttheunanticiPated.

 

 

Bewarethelimitationsofmeasurement.

 

 

BewarePrematuredeclarationofvictory.

 

 

Bewaretheescalationofcommitment,

376

 

ChaPterlI

 

S”s如力7′′?gC/m′?gel’ezs”s万?舵α加増上)ecのノ

            

Control,the

 

pulsing

 

digits

 

on

 

thescreen

 

abruptlystopped.Mission ControI

 

Spokesman

           

Steve Nesbittsatabovethefourconsoletiers,Foralong momenthestaredaroundthe

        

silent,so代lylitroom,Theredascenttrajectoryline wasstationa~ onthedisplayscreen.

          

Finallyhespoke:”F1ightcontrollersherelookingve~ carefullyatthesituation.obviously

        

amajormalfunction.”

             

Headed

 

byformer

 

Secretary ofState

 

VVilliam

 

Rogers,the

 

PresidentiaI

 

C0mmlss-on

             

that was

 

set

 

up

 

to

 

investigatethe

 

Cause

 

ofthe

 

cho′/engerdisaster

 

had

 

littletrouble

        

identifyingthephysicalcause,oneofthejointsona boosterrocketfai-edtoseal.The

             

‘‘culprit”wasoneofthesyntheticrubberC)-ringsthatweredesignedtokeeptherockets’

        

superhotgasesfromescapingfromthejointsbetweenthebooste sfourmainsegments,

            

VVhenoneoftheo‐ringsfailed,theresuーtingflamesburnedthroughtheshuttle’sexternal

             

fueltank,Liquidhydrogenandliquidoxygenthen mi×edandignited,causingthee×p-o-

            

sionthatdestroyed cho〃enger.

             

However,theso‐Called RogersCommissioninvestigationsalsorevealedagreatdeal

           

abouttheinternalworkingsofNASA.ltwasageographicallydispersed matrixorganト

          

zation.Headquarterswerein肌′ashington,DC,Whereitsmostseniormanagers,inC1uding

           

its

 

head,NASA administratorJames

 

Beggs,were

 

mainlyinvo-ved

 

in

 

lobbying

 

activity,

        

reflectingthedependenceonfederalfunds(anditsvu-nerabilitytofluctuationsinfund-

       

ing},Mission Controlwaslocated attheJohnson Space Centerin Houston,絶Xas,AI1

           

nrnn--!Ginn角くnQ k

 

m角-n

 

Qnn-nQq

 

rnckQtb00SterS‐fueltanks--weretheresponsibilitv

            

also

 

atthe

 

centerofa

 

”can-do”attitude within

 

NASA,supportingtheideathat

 

great

        

objectivesareachievableifonlythe willisthere.Bornofthe Apollosuccess,thistook

        

formin Marshallasprideintheachievementofobjectivesandstronglyheldviewsthat

          

ifafliohtwasto be delavedforanvreason,itwould

 

neverbe becauseofsomething

Chapterll

 

s婚姻′′?′′7gc力の壌evers”s方7/r′研かeDecの’

 

377

       

厳窄H

9r

 

                

ー1

 

 

              

      

   

       

      

ri

                                     

.11

 

.1ー

      

.--

蟻織激闘

           

 

 

 

 

restructure

ndtracking

submitting

378

 

ChaPterll

 

Sz′srq′′7′′7gC方α′?gel’e裕”s力7″デq“1’g上)eαリノ

豊三瀞二選澱

                                      

 

q)o

 

      

 

     

     

 

      

 

   

     

 

       

 

   

 

     

  

        

 

       

 

   

 

    

  

始m一蹴÷轍細

 

心紬触…卵細棚

 

鮎醐細

 

回緋十願キー

   

     

 

       

 

   

 

    

  

     

 

       

 

    

 

    

   

     

 

       

 

     

 

    

 

    

 

 

 

           

 

 

   

 

                       

 

 

 

                     

             

             

 

                                

 

 

,n

 

,n

      

 

硝od

   

・1

 

          

The Co′”mb′α Disaster

          

on

 

Februaryl,2003,thespace

 

shuttle

 

Co/〃mb′o’s

 

braking

 

rockets werefired

 

asthe

             

shutt-eheadedtowarda-andingatKennedySpaceCenter,AsitpassedovertheUnited

States,observersspottedglowing

 

piecesofdebrisfallingfromtheshuttle.At8:59am

EST,commanderRickHusbandrepliedtoaca=from Mission Control,buthisacknowl-

edgmentceased

 

mid-transmission,Abouta

 

minutelater,Co/umb′o broke

 

up,killing

 

its

seven

 

astronauts.

 

The Columbia Accidentlnvestigation Board(CAIB orBoard)Wasformedtoidentify

whathad

 

happened.ln

 

itsAugust2003final

 

report,itidentifiedthe

 

physica-causeof

the

 

accident.A

 

I.67‐pound

 

slab

 

ofinsulating

 

foam

 

feH

 

offthe

 

externalfuel

 

tank

 

81.7

secondsafterCo′〃mb′o waslaunched(onJanuary16),hittheleftwing,andcauseda

breachinthetilesdesignedtoprotectthealuminum wingfromtheheatofreentryron

reentry,thebreachallowedsuperheatedgasintothewing,which,asaresult,meltedin

criticalareas.

                

ButtheBoardalsoaddressedthenonphysicalfactorsthatcontributedtothedisaster.

           

Because ofno

 

lmprovementinthe

 

-evelofNASAfunding,NASA AdministratorDanieI

        

Goldin Pusheda”Faster,Better,CheaPeド(FBC)initiativethatimpacted ontheshuttle

          

program.

             

accident,theagency’spowerful

 

human

 

spaceflightcultureremainedintact,asdid

             

many practicessuch asinadequate concern overdeviationsfrom expected

 

perfor-

             

mance,asilentsafetyprogram,andschedulepressure.

management

human

 

SPaC

uate

 

C0nCern

Though

accident,

Chapterll

 

s那加′“′′?gc力の7ge1ぞなz摺方7m研かどDecαy

 

379

                

 

                             

qy

  

            

 

  

       

 

       

               

             

 

  

             

 

  

                             

 

ft

          

降臨

                 

              

combined with deCentralized execution ofSafety programsatthe program and project

           

levels,the BoardfoundthatNASA had notbeen willingto givetheprくりectteamsthe

          

independentStatusforthistoactuallywork.

            

TheexternaltankoftheshuttlewasdesignedWithaーayerofinsuーati。ntilesthatWere

            

designedtostickt。thetank,nottobeshed.Similarly,theshuttle’SheatShield wasnotdesignedto bedamaged;thetileS werefragile,suchthattheshuttle wasnotallowedtoflyinrain。rstayoutsideinhail.

 

However,theexperlence。fpreviouslaunches wasthatfoam sometimesdidfa=。ffandtileSsometimesweredamaged.Butthiswasoccurnng withoutanynoticeableneg-ativeeffectonthefunctioning 。ftheshutt-e.ofl12flights

 

priort。thefataI

 

Co/umb′oflight,foam hadbeenShed70timeSandtileshadcomebackdamagedeverytime.over

          

time,NASA managers9otusedtotheideathatsuchdamageWouldoccurandConvinced

           

themse-Vesthere Wasnosafety-of-flightissue.丁heBoardreportedthat”program man-

          

a9ementmadeerroneousassumptionsabouttherobustnessofasystem basedonprlor

             

successratherthanondependableenglneeringdataandrigoroustesting.”

             

The

 

rePortcites eightseparate“missed

 

opportunities“

 

by NASA duringthe16‐day

           

fliqhtto「esPondtoe×Dress-onsof onPm nrnfforくfh角十rn---バhぬ・′凸Qぐcidorl

 

ヒ(rovnm-

            

A=Voices mustbeheard,Whichcanbedifficultwhenfacingahierarchy.Anemploy-

              

ee’s

 

location

 

in

 

the

 

hierarchy

 

Can

 

encouraqe

 

silence. oroanizationsinterestQrl

 

in

 

pーe,englneer

 

Centerifthe

 

beenleftuna

 

offertoobtain

  

The Board

 

could bedon

theaccident,

380

 

ChaPter竹

 

S”sr”′′7′′7gC/70′?ge1’ers”sわ?所研ハ’eDecのノ

            

Managementdecisions madedurin9 Co′〃mb′q’sfina-flightreflectmissedopportuni‐

            

ties,blockedorineffectivecommuniCationChannels,flawedanalysis,andine行ective

            

leadership.Perhaps moststrikingisthefactthatmanagementdisplayednointerest

             

in

 

understanding

 

 

problem

 

and

 

its

 

implications.Because managersfailedto avaiー

           

themSeIVesofthewiderangeofexpertiseandopinionnecessa~t0aChieVethebest

 

answertothe

 

debris

 

strike

 

question.-“wasthis

 

 

safety-of-flightConcern?’’--some

 

spaceshutt-e

 

pro9ram

 

managersfai-edtofulfiltheimplicitcontractto do whatever

 

-s

 

possibleto

 

ensurethesafetyofthecrew.lnfact,their managementteChniques

 

unknowinglyimposed

 

barriersthatkeptatbayboth engineeringconCernsand dis-

 

sentingviews,and ultimatelyhelpedcreate”blindspots“thatpreventedthem from

 

seeingthedangerthefoam strikeposed.

 

The Boardconcludedthatthe post‐cho//engerchanges”wereundoneovertimeby

managementactions”andthat”thepre-chd′′engerーayersofprocesses,boardsandPan-

           

eーsthathad producedafalsesenseofconfidenceinthesystem anditslevelofsafety

          

returnedinfullforcepriorto Co/〃mb′o.”

          

CaseSourCes

          

Berger,B.2003,Colu1mLbiarePolt熊山仕sNASAculture,goVetnゴロQentoVe1sight.SEPqce‘com,

             

August26.http://www.space.com虚ロssioロlaunches/caibJpreview-030707‐1,h加コd.

           

ColumbiaAccidentlnvestigationBoard.2003,Co/“用鰯”△cc!熊川‘〃vesi増曙′○“βo研げ尺ePo覆

            

匿o/”′77es/め し7.Vi責asIMington,DC:NationaIAeronauticsandsPaceAdm”listrationandthe

              

GOVern北1entPri1ltirlgoぼice,

          

Coyault,C.2003,Fa紅ureanoption?:NASA’sshanowsa食うtyprogram PutCo1umLbiaandher

             

crewonsaIT1ePathasChallenger,AvidZZO“ 厳密化&S蹴ce露c脳oわき妙159(9):27‐35,

           

Mccomユell, 4,1987,C加″g′7gげ;4se“o”sm”ク加αZO“,London:s加口on &Schuster.

           

Magn‐usson,E.1986,Asefiousdeficiency.方me(Ma工ch10):34一36,

           

Morring,F.ir.2003,Cultureshock,A顕倣わ′? 厳密化&角卿鑑賞をc卿○わき妙159(9):31-34,

,Columbia

http://wWW・

AdditionaI

  

Buchanan,D.A,,Fitzgerald,L.,andKetley,D, ds),2007.勤es那加粥の遊び 鯛d即だαメザ

Reading

   

o′柳川z研/o〃”/c加′7肥 Mo叱m顔ねg庇α肋鯛だ,London:Routledge,Reportsastudyofthe

        

Problemsofd迫範singandsusta立lingnewwork血gPracticesinthet丁K NationaIHealth

         

Service,Basedoncasestudiesofsustainabi韻typracticeindifferentareasofhealthcare,

         

o鎖ersPracticaladviceonthedissem血ationofnewideasandthestePsnecessarytosus-

        

tamthoseoncei血IP1emented.Theorgan血ationand managementissues-and血IP1ications

         

あrPractice-applytootherorganizationsandsectorsandarenotconfinedtohealth.

          

Edmondson,A,2018,劣るeたα可esso雄鶏mz研か苫CIだの粥g撚りに力oわgにα/均一だeか粥 物ewo液ぞ卿ce

          

ルァ/eqr′?Z′7g !′7′7の’αrわれ m?〆grow豹.Hoboken,Nj:John Wiley& Sons.Discussesthe

         

stePsnecessarytocreateapsychologicallysafeenvironmentatwork,inWhichPeople

         

危elabletoe×Perimentand make mistakeswithoutPunishment,

        

Mahler,J.G‐,,andCasamayou,M,H,2009.0増zz〃ZzのZo〃〆蛇の切粥gqz蔵質品4′77物eC物α舵〃ger

         

m7αCひれのめ如 αccZde川風 頓Zashmgton,DC: Georgetown UniversityPress.0節ersaftesh

         

analysisofthetwoN‐ASAshuttledisasters,intermsoforganizationallearning.Wrhat

         

didNASA1earn茸omtheCZZα/鋤gerdisaster?日ow muchofthatlearningwassymbolic,

ChaPterll

 

s”sm“?′′?gc!m′?gevezs″s左方万頒ハ’e乙)孜凝ii

 

ヨ写1

andnotsubStantive?vvhatdidNASA notlearn?AndwhatdidNASAlearnand鑓上enfbrget-thuscontributingtothelossoftheshuttleC〆”削る/”?Externalpoliticaland壱甑d-getaryPressureswereoftentoblameあrthenonlearningandfbrgetting,andthese 謡e態ctorsthatalsojeoPardizethesustainabilityofthekindsoforganizationalchangesthatNASA wasadvisedtolllake,

P花ぼer,J.2010.Buildingsustainableorganizations:Thehuman 魚ctor.4mde′仰 げゑぬ〃?-

αgeme“『控なp沈静es24(1):34‐45.Arguesthatenvironmentalsustainabilityhasattract副mostofthe′attentionandthathumanandsocialsustainabilityareequallyimportant。Suggeststhat,while“

green management“canbenentanorganizationfinancialb′,andintermsofreputation,asimilarfbcuson humansustainabilityshouldalsogeneratereturns,Proposesaresearchagenda,toexplorelinksbetween humanand.socialsu‐露頭ヱ.-

abilityPracticesandorganizationale爺ectiveness.

Sull,D.,Homkes,R.,andsull,C.2015.W〆hystrategyexecutionunravels-and what鱒doaboutit,息αrvα川 β”sZ〃ess尺e塵り93(3):5 66.Strategyexecutionseemstoben・ore

Problematicthandevelopingstrategy,becauseexecutionismisunderstood。Theprob16耽lisnotalignment,butcoordination;researchshowsthatpeopleinotherunits(internal

ande×ternal)arenotreliable.Execution doesnot mean”stickingtotheP1an” where

changingconditionsdemandflexibility.Communications丘omtop managementmayも拶丘equentbutareo貸eninconsistent;onlyhalfofmiddle managerscannameanyoft蔭葛irorganizatioぱstopPriorities,Doesexecutionrequlrea“

per危rmanceculture”?Perhaps,butagility,teamwork,andambitionshouldalsoberewarded,Theideathatexecution

shouldbedriven 丑omthetopisa m賃h;execution“livesanddieswith managersinthe middle-buttheyarehamstrungbythePoorcommunication 丘om above”(P.66),Concludesthatfosteringcoordinationandbuildingagilityarekeytostrategyexecutioll,Thesameguidelinesapplytochangeimplementation.

Roundup

-fyouhavebeeninvolvedpreviouslyas

 

managerofchange,how wouldyou

rateyourselfintermsofyourhand-ingoftheneedtotakeactionsthatsustain

change?

 

VVhat

 

have

 

you

 

done

 

wefー?

VVhatnotsowell?

VVhenyou

 

havebeen

 

ontherecelvlngendofthechangeinitiativesofothers,howwellhavetheyhandledtheneedtotakeactionsthatsustainchange?VVhat

havetheydonewe”?VVhatnotsoweli?

ofthecasespresentedinthischapter,which

 

one

 

resonateS

 

best

 

With

 

you?

VVhatisitaboutthiscasethatyoucan

relateto?Arethereanyimplicationsずり『howyouWouldactinthefuture?

Howgoodareyouathandlingunantにも

pated

 

outcomes?

 

HQw

 

cou-d

 

you

 

鮪n一

proveinthisarea?

lfthere

 

was

 

one

 

mainidea

 

that

 

yi)utookawayfrom

 

thischapterthatyoubelievecanbeofmostusetoyouasa

changemanager,whatWoulditbe?

-fyouweretoaddanidea,suggestion,orpracticetothetreatmentofsusta誓言.…ingchangethatisprovidedinthisChap-ter,whatWQuidbeyourcQntrlbuti。”ぞ

382

 

ChaPterll

 

及ぼr所′7′′7gC力の7gelぞr瀞俗万?′′′α抗’g上)ecの′

         

H[ereisashortsummaryofthekeyPointsthatwewouldlikeyoutotake丑omthischaPter,

            

inrelationtoeachofthelearningoutcomes:

防7de′罰伽d豹ec似sesげ“7ZZ!蛸ハフedecqiノ一助mrsゎ 豹es”s如!mb〃リノグc加′7ge.ThischaPterhasemPhasizedthatevenchangesthathavebeenimP1ementedsuccess篇

fullyareliabletodecay,Sustainabilitycannotbetaken あrgranted.The‘‘improvement

evaPoration

 

efEect,” asthe benefits 丘om

 

change

 

are

 

lost,is

 

common. The

 

change

managermayhavelittledirectcontroloverthe 魚ctorsthatleadtoinitiativedecay,but

measurescanbePutinP1acetocounterthose 態ctorsandtoincreasetheProbability

thatchangewillbesustained.lnitiativedecaycanbecausedbymanyfactors,andwe

identifiedlo:initiatorsmoveon,accountabilitybecomesdiffuse,kllowledgeislostwith

sta茸turnover,oldhabitsareimPorted withnew recruits,thechangetriggersareno

longervisible,new managershavetheirown agendas,powerbrokersblockProgress,

start-uPfundingruns

 

out,other Priorities

 

emerge,sta甘 su鐘erinitiative 態tigue-and

enthusiasm 云orchange droPs,Thechange managerthushastoremainVigilantwith

regardtoPotentialthreatstosustainabilitysuchasthese, Manyofthechange models

and 丘ameworksdiscussedinchaPter

 

loidentifysustainabilityasafinalstePinthe

Process.N[anagingsustainabilityasana賃erthought,however,canbeProblematic.ltis

moreaPProPriatetodesignsustainabilityintoachangeinitiativefromthestart.

DZSZZ′7g乙′Zs々 ゎerwee〃cたの7ge助力Zのんes豹αrqだ”鋭”meworrわぞの頒sんα′/α′7α 庇s〃s云の〃ed

q′7dr力ose 豹αrm.e‘炉α!sellノの・r毎ノぞ

頓Zealso emPhasizedthat,when achange doesnot work outasP1anned,thisisnot

necessarily

 

 

Problem, Failures

 

are

 

not

 

always

 

bad. 訳/e

 

discussed the

 

distinction

betweenblameworthyandPraiseworthy 態ilures,TheFormerincludedeliberateorinad-

vertentdeviations丘om Prescribed practice,ExPerimentsdesignedtoimProvePerあr-

mance÷andreasonableactionsthathaveundesirablebutunPredictableoutcomes,are

Praiseworthy-becausethey oぼeroPPortunities 丘om whichtolearn, M[any organiza-

tions,however,treatmost飴iluresasblameworthy,Thisiswasteful,becausethelessons

arelost,andthosewhoareinaPPropriatelypunishedarelikelytobedemotivated.The

change managementchallengeistoestablishaPsychologicallysa危 environm‐entthat

welcomesexperimentation,recognizesandrewardsPraiseworthy 危ilures,andenables

learning,

履e川砂 α′“qpカリ堰αZの7sr々萌cm7の′7rr治雄ero 物es那加〃の蒲リノげc加′7ge,

‐AJthoughsomeofthethreatstosustainabilityarebeyonddirectmanagementcontrol,

awareness

 

ofthose

 

threats

 

and

 

their

 

imPact

 

can

 

generatetimely

 

and

 

aPproPriate

responses,VVediscussedeightsetsofPossibleactionstostrengthenthesustainability

ofagivenchange:redesignroles,redesignrewardsystems,linkstaぼselectiontochange

o切ectives,”walkthetalk,

”encouragevoluntary acts ofinitiative, measure progress,

celebrate”smaller wins”enroute,andfinetunetheaPProach whenthe Process(as

almostalwayshaPPens)doesnotunfoldasanticipated, Wealsodistinguishedbetween

sustainingthesubstance ofchange(new working Practices, あr examP1e) and an

imProvementtr瑚ectory(蕪rtherreductionsintimeto market,危re×ample),Preventive

maintenanceinvolvesactiontosustainthe 化)rmer,to keePthosePracticesoPerating

as

 

intended. Developmental maintenance,on the

 

other

 

hand,involves

 

adaPtingto

circumstancestogainincreasingbenefits

chapter11

 

&!瀞α″7′′7gc力の7geveな”sみ?mm′veDeαか

 

383

腫圃園園 の雌の 超〃〆肋ep/物体 豹α”α〃”r/sew庇〃彫琢!′?gzos那加!′7c加増e.VVeclosedthechaPterwithanumberofwordsofwarning化)rthechange manager.First,expecttheunexpectedand managethe(positiveand negative)unintendedco距sequences.Second,bewarethelimitationsofmeasurel・lent,andrecognizetheimplica‐

tionsoftheJ-curveand Kanter’slaw,whichstates,“Everythinglookslikea稼ilurein

the

 

middle.”Third,bewarethepremature

 

declaration

 

ofvictory, which may divert

energyand attention 丘omthechange process,butcontinueto celebratethe“small

wins“

 

as

 

appropriate. Finally,beware

 

the

 

escalation

 

ofcommitment

 

to

 

struggling

changeinitiativesbyacceptingtherequestsofadvocates貴)rFurtherresourceswhenitisbecomingclearthattheinitiativeisnotgoingtodelivertheplannedoutcomes(but

maybeapraiseworthy魚ilure).

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todoaboutit.hαハ′qrdβ”“〃essReyZey93(3);5 66.

Sourceofopeningquote 丘om Tom Brokawhttps://conantleadership.com/25‐quotes‐about‐managingchange/

Sourceofthechapteropeningquote:25 Quotesabout Managing Change,Cの7α崩乙m(左なあ字,A山梨st28,2017,https://conantleadersl鶴ip.com/25‐quote abouトmanagmgchange,

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