HISTORIC AFRICA
The Medieval World
West African Interior
Trade through North African Coast
TRANSMISSION OF CULTURE
TRADE: Products and Ideas/Culture (Language, Writing System, Religion, etc.)
MIGRATION: People move from one region to another taking with them their Products and Ideas
CONQUEST: One Government conquers a group of people forcing on them their Products and Ideas
MEDIEVAL TRADE
WEST AFRICAN INTERIOR TO THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA BASIN: THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE
SPREAD OF CULTURE FROM THE ARABIAN PENINSULA TO NORTH AFRICA AND WEST AFRICA
AFRICA AND THE WORLD ECONOMY
MY POINT IN THE DISCUSSION #3, And the Essay:
INTERIOR TRADE TO THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN: TRADE POINT #1
Products from the African forest and savanna reached the Mediterranean Sea through the north south gold salt trade (AD300 Kingdom of Ghana trading with the Mediterranean) TAXATION OF CAMEL CARAVANS TRAVELING SOUTH IN SALT AND TRAVELING NORTH IN GOLD.
TRANS-SAHARN TRADE
CULTURE POINT #5: Use of Arabic Writing System based on the 22-consonant Phoenician Alphabet AD 350.
MEDITERRANEAN BASIN AND WEST ASIAN/ARABIAN PENINSULA TRADE AND SPREAD OF CULTURE: SPREAD OF CULTURE—SPREAD OF ISLAM CULTURE POINTS #2-3
Introduction of Islam to (2) North Africa by conquest and (3) West Africa by Trade (begins c. AD 650)
Empire of Mali: Mansa Kankan Musa makes his pilgrimage (AD 1324-1325) and alerts the Europeans to potential gold for coinage
TRANS-SAHARN TRADE
Interior Trade into the Mediterranean Sea Basin
EMPIRE OF GHANA CONTROLS THE TRANS SAHARAN TRADE
Trade with the Mediterranean Basin: Berber-speaking traders brought salt SOUTH to the Kingdom/Empire and took gold NORTH via CAMEL CARAVAN TRADE aka The TRANS SAHARAN TRADE (SHORT ANSWER #17)
Ghana did not own the gold fields of Banbuk (in present-day Senegal) or Boure (in present-day Guinea). It only controlled the trade routes to and from the fields
The Empire of Ghana CONTROLLED THE TRADE BY TAXING THE TRADERS TRAVELING NORTH (in Gold) AND THEN TAXED THEM AGAIN TRAVELING SOUTH (in salt) Trade Point #1
The Ghana did own all gold nuggets—anyone could own gold dust
CAMELS: THE SHIPS OF THE DESERT
CAMELS: THE SHIPS OF THE DESERT
Camel introduced by the Romans for transportation in the 1st century AD The Dromedary Camel—One Hump
Travel 10+ days without water
Nostrils can close against the sand
Two sets of eye lashes to close against the sand
Feet splay to support weight in the sand
Camel caravans could be 5 to 2,000 camels
Trip takes 70-90 days using the stars to guide the traveler
Oases were refreshment centers
TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE THE DESERT BRIDGE
MILO RVER
(Tributary to the Niger River)
KANKAN
TRADE CITY ON THE MILO RIVER—MY HOME IN GUINEA
BOURE GOLD(Boure is today Siguiri, Guinea)
KANO CLOTH
KANO (today Northern Nigeria
HAUSA SPEAKERS CREATE CLOTH NAMED FOR THEIR CITY
SHEA BUTTER
TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE
This photo is taken outside Timbuktu 1993
The Tuareg (Berber-speakers) are known as the Blue Men of the Desert because the Indigo Dye rubs off on the skin
The Trans-Saharan Caravans still move products today
See Video Clip Trans-Saharan Trade
CAMEL CARAVAN
The Cheesecloth-like fabric keeps the wearer from breathing in sand in the air
TUAREG WOMEN
The Tuareg are a Matrilineal Society
CAMEL CARAVAN
CAMEL CARAVAN
CAMEL CARAVAN
SPREAD OF CULTURE
SPREAD OF ISLAM
AD 622 to AXUM via Migration
AD647-700 North Africa via Conquest
AD700 West African Interior via Trade
SPREAD OF ISLAM
MOHAMMED (AD570-632)
ISLAM BECOMES A RELIGION IN AD622
ISLAM SPREADS ON THE ARABIAN PENINSULA IN THE 7TH CENTURY
Short Answer #14
AXUM: Mohammed sends a colony across the Red Sea to Axum to protect his New One God Religion (God of Abraham) c. AD 622 via Migration CULTURE POINT #1
NORTH AFRICA: The ARABS began their CONQUEST of the Berbers of NORTH AFRICA in AD 647 and finished in the 8TH century via Conquest CULTURE POINT #2
The conquest did NOT force Islam on the Berbers–Instead they Taxed anyone who was not a Muslim
Many CONVERTED to avoid the TAX; The Muslims knew this was a false conversion–they weren't really interested in the adults; They were interested in all the Children who MUST now become Muslim
WEST AFRICA: The Berbers carried Islam into WEST AFRICA through TRADE bringing with them Muslim Clerics who showed off their Trade Wares AND Writing System AD 700 via Trade CULTURE POINT #3
CULTURE POINT #1: ISLAM ARRIVES TO AXUM AD 622
Mohammed escapes from Mecca to Medina where he established his first Mosque c. 622
Mohammed sends a colony across the Red Sea to Axum to protect his Religion c. 622
At the time, this coastal land was a province of Ethiopia. Ethiopia 1st practiced polytheism, 900 BC Judaism, AD 330 East Orthodox Christian which had be transmitted by Greek sailors in the Red Sea Trade
Today the land is Eritrea
SPREAD OF ISLAM TO THE EMPIRE OF GHANA
8th century Islam is introduced as Berber Traders bring with them International Traders from North Africa, Muslim Clerics
The Ghana is interested in the technology of writing the Arabic Alphabet (Arabic alphabet created in AD350 a spin off of the Phoenician Alphabet 1000BC) CULTURE POINT #5
The Ghana Employed Arab Clerics to keep records
Arab Clerics could not live in Kumbi Saleh because they cannot be ruled by a non-Muslims so they created a “twin city” of Muslim Kumbi Saleh
The King did not become a Muslim but many urbanites did so that they could participate in the international trade
ISLAM FOR NON-ARABIC SPEAKERS
MEMORIZATION OF THE QURAN IN ARABIC
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
EMPIRE OF MALI AD1235-1460
Founded by Maninka-speaker Sunidata (Soon ja ta) Keita (kay ta) AD1235-c.1255
A Non-Muslim
The Empire of Mali was a Successor State to Ghana and controlled the populations the same. Only difference is that Mali controlled salt fields and gold fields
Mansa Kankan Musa (Sundiata Keita’s Grandson) was a Muslim and performed the pilgrimage AD1324-1325 (Short Answer #18)
Handed out gold at each city, town, village to build Mosques And Quarnic Schools
Traders, Urbanites, and now Royals become Muslims; Plus some rural farmers
24
MANSA KANKAN MUSA
80-100 camels loaded with gold
500 slaves carried gold staffs of 4 lbs. each
Over 1000 people in his entourage
Gave away gold at each stop—all the way to Mecca and back along the trade routes from Timbuktu
Depressed the price of gold in the Mediterranean Basin for 10 years
Attracted the Attention of Europeans who had made GOLD their Currency
Brought back Arab, Muslim Clerics from the Al-Azhar Mosque/University to teach Black Africans to become Muslim Clerics at his new university
Sankore University, Timbuktu
Mali falls due to internal revolts over succession to kingship.
Short Answer #18
NEW EUROPEAN INTEREST IN AFRICA
The Fatimid Dinar from North Africa minted by Muslim governments
Increased trade between Africa and Europe
Europeans change their coins from silver and copper to gold
2/3 of the gold used in Europe came from West Africa
Unification of North African Groups spread the Gold Trade
Kankan Musa’s Pilgrimage focuses European interest on the Empire of Mali; how can they get access to all that gold.
ROAD INTO TIMBUKTU
TIMBUKTU
This is a picture 1993 of the Original Tuareg Well (walled off as a part of the Timbuktu Museum)
The grass House is a replica of the type of house used by the caretaker of the Well
The Story:
The Tuareg dug the well at a trade crossroads
Any Traveler could have water from the well
They had to leave someone to make sure it didn't fill in with sand
The only "expendable" family member was a post-menopausal woman name Timbuktu
SANKORE MOSQUETIMBUKTU
The Sankore Mosque
(one of three mosques)
Sahalian Architecture–the wood poles allow people to repair the erosion of the exterior walls
Today it only rains once per year
Today's Erosion is Wind Erosion
SANKORE UNIVERSITYTIMBUKTU
Part of Sankore Mosque
This is Sankore University established by Mansa Kankan Musa in AD1325
Kankan Musa, a Muslim, brought back Arab Clerics (brown-skinned) from the Al-Azahar University in Cairo to create a cadre of African Clerics (black-skinned) so that Africans could learn about Islam from locals and not foreigners
The University's focus was only Religion
TIMBUKTU NEW WELL
SHOPPING IN THE MARKET
TIMBUKTU IMPORTS ALL FOOD
TIMBUKTU
BAKING BREAD IN TIMBUKTU
Because the oven is open, sand crystals are found in the bread making it “crunchy.”
AL-AZHAR MOSQUE & UNIVERSITY CAIRO (AD970)
SHORT ANSWER #15
SPREAD OF ISLAM
WEST AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND EMPIRES
THE INLAND NIGER DELTA
THE SUCCESSOR STATES OF
GHANA AD300-1076
MALI AD1235-1460
SONGHAI AD1460-1581
INLAND NIGER DELTA
See Geography Power Point about the formation of the two Niger Deltas
The Delta's River Basin Agriculture supports the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai Empires–feeds the Royals and the Army
WEST AFRICA
Kingdoms/Empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai are SUCCESSOR STATES. While the leadership for each is from different ethnic groups the method of control is the same
EMPIRE EXPANSION: CONQUEST
Marriage Diplomacy: Those who did not want to be destroyed in war offered a royal daughter to be wed to the King so no war protecting your people and land and the King does not need to waste his resources. Positive for those marrying into the kingdom because the king may be the son of your royal daughter—special connection to your group
Hostage Diplomacy: After conquest how do you keep them honest and tight with the conquerors no matter how far away they are? The King takes the firsts borns—royals, religious, highly placed—back to his palace and raise them as his own. He raises them with his own children. The hope is that when the parents die, we send them back to rule as our friends (well, that’s the plan).
We find this methodology in Egypt and other kingdoms and empires across Africa
EMPIRE OF GHANA
SONINKE SPEAKERS
SHORT ANSWER #16
EMPIRE OF GHANA
AD 300
Soninke-speakers
Established Kingdom that spreads into an empire in the headwaters of the Senegal and Niger Rivers.
Capital at Kumbi Saleh
Ghana is the Kings title: “Great Warrior”
The Ghana was assisted by a Council of Ministers
Ghana owned all of the slaves (old world slavery: to become a slave you are captured in war) Slaves were used as farmers in the Niger Inland Delta and as soldiers
EMPIRE OF GHANA
REMEMBER: Trade with the Mediterranean Basin: Berber-speaking traders brought salt to the Kingdom/Empire and took gold north CAMEL CARAVAN TRADE (SHORT ANSWER #17)
Ghana did not own the gold fields of Banbuk (in present-day Senegal) or Boure (in present-day Guinea). It only controlled the trade routes to and from the fields
MAJOR TRADE CITY: TIMBUKTU
The Empire of Ghana CONTROLLED THE TRADE BY TAXING THE TRADERS TRAVELING NORTH (in Gold) AND THEN TAXED THEM AGAIN TRAVELING SOUTH (in salt)
The Ghana did own all gold nuggets—anyone could own gold dust
SPREAD OF ISLAM TO THE EMPIRE OF GHANA
8th century Islam is introduced as Berber Traders bring with them International Traders from North Africa, Muslim Clerics
The Ghana is interested in the technology of writing the Arabic Alphabet (Arabic alphabet created in AD350 a spin off of the Phoenician Alphabet 1000BC)
Employed Arab Clerics to keep records
Arab Clerics could not live in Kumbi Saleh because the cannot be ruled by a non-Muslims so they created a “twin city” of Muslim Kumbi Saleh
The King did not become a Muslim but many urbanites did so that they could participate in the international trade
Ghana fell in AD1076
WHY CONVERT?
WEALTH OF THE LONG-DISTANCE TRADE
INTERNATIONAL TRADE—NEW PRESTIGE ITEMS
LITERACY
UNIVERSAL RELIGION
EMPIRE OF MALI
MANINKA SPEAKERS
EMPIRE OF MALI AD1235-1460
REMEMBER: Founded by Maninka-speaker Sunidata (Soon ja ta) Keita (kay ta) AD1235; 1235-c.1255
A Non-Muslim
The Empire of Mali was a Successor State to Ghana and controlled the populations the same. Only difference is that Mali controlled salt fields and gold fields
Mansa Kankan Musa (Sundiata Keita’s Grandson) was a Muslim and performed the pilgrimage AD1324-1325 (Short Answer #18)
Traders, Urbanites, and now Royals become Muslims; some rural farmers
MANSA KANKAN MUSA
REMEMBER: 80-100 camels loaded with GOLD
500 slaves carried gold staffs of 4 lbs. each
Over 1000 people in his entourage
Gave away gold at each stop—all the way to Mecca and back along the trade routes from Timbuktu
Depressed the price of gold in the Mediterranean Basin for 10 years
Attracted the Attention of Europeans who had made GOLD their Currency
Brought back Arab, Muslim Clerics from the Al-Azhar Mosque/University to teach Black Africans to become Muslim Clerics at his new university
Sankore University, Timbuktu
Mali falls due to internal revolts over succession to kingship.
Short Answer #18
NEW EUROPEAN INTEREST IN AFRICA
The Fatimid Dinar from North Africa minted by Muslim governments
Increased trade between Africa and Europe
Europeans change their coins from silver and copper to gold
2/3 of the gold used in Europe came from West Africa
Unification of North African Groups spread the Gold Trade
Kankan Musa’s Pilgrimage focuses European interest on the Empire of Mali; how can they get access to all that gold.
SONGHAI EMPIRE
SUNNI ALI A SONGHAI SPEAKER THEN THE SONINKE SPEAKING ASKIA MOHAMMEDS
SONGHAI EMPIRE
AD 1400-1591
Successor State to Mali and to Ghana following the same rules (Marriage and Hostage Diplomacy)—The Largest of the three. Capital at Gao (founded AD800); Chief Trade City is Timbuktu near the Niger River
Sunni Ali Ber A Songhai-speaker was a Product of Hostage Diplomacy, He uses his knowledge against disintegrating Malian Empire creating the Songhai Empire
He in turn is overthrown by Muslim Soninke-speaker Askia (Emperor) Mohammed Toure I Rule followed by his Muslim sons, Askia Mohammed Toure II and III; The Last Ruler was Askia Ishaq II
The Askias Insisted that all rural peoples become Muslim
1591 Civil War prompted Morocco Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi to send an army to conquer Songhai. Al-Mansur hoped to control the West African gold fields and establish himself as the Caliph of Sudan
Faced with logistical problems and the near impossibility of controlling the gold mines which prompted the initial invasion, the Moroccans withdrew in 1661
The Songhai Empire could not be reestablished. From 1591 to 1901 various Askias attempted to continue the traditions of the old empire
Finally in 1901 French colonial forces conquered their state
MUSLIM NORTH AFRICA
EGYPT: FATIMID CALIPHATE (SHI’IA)
EGYPT: SALAH AL’DIN’S AYYUBID CALIPHATE (SUNNI)
FATIMID EMPIRE (969-1171)
SHI’IA-based
Believe that the leader of the Faithful has completed Quranic School/Teachings; Knows the Law; AND is a direct descendent from Mohammed’s family.
Fatima was Mohammed’s daughter
EGYPT: THE FATIMID CALIPHATE
AD950 The FATIMID Rulers of Egypt were SHIA; Independent of Baghdad
Shia because Fatima was the Daughter of Mohammed
They brought in Mamluks–Slave Soldiers to run the Army
MAMLUK—Arabic word meaning white warrior slave commonly denotes a slaved owned by the State
Salah al-Din was a foot soldier from Kurdistan (Present-day northern Iraq border with Turkey). He is talented and rises to the rank of General.
Salah al-Din is a SUNNI
CRUSADES — 1189 BATTLES RICHARD THE LION HEART IN THE THIRD CRUSADE which ends in a Truce–Allows Christian Pilgrims back into the Holy Land IF they behave
SALAH AL-DIN IBN AYYUB
Kurdistan
Mamluk Foot Soldier
Reorganized Egyptian Army
Recaptured Jerusalem For Islam 1187
Fought In The Third Crusade Against Richard I Of England
SALAH AL-DINIBN AYYUBID
THE CRUSADES
CHRISTIAN KNIGHTSMUSLIM SARACENS
SALAH AL-DINMAMLUK EGYPT
AYYUBID DYNASTY
SALAH AL-DIN (aka Saladin) Is A Sunni
Sunnis believe that the Leader of the Faithful has completed Quranic School And Knows the Law
Overthrows Fatimid Dynasty
Stability & Prosperity In Egypt
Cairo Important Center Of Arab And Islamic Learning
Mamluks Become Military & Landed Aristocracy
Fails To Change With The Times Refuses To Use Gunpowder Weapons
Falls To The Ottoman Empire
CAIRO
AL-AZHAR MOSQUE & UNIVERSITY CAIRO (AD970)
SHORT ANSWER #15
WEST AFRICAN TRADE EMPIRES
KANEM AND BORNU (present-day Chad, Libya, Niger, Sudan)
HAUSA CITY-STATES (present-day Northern Nigeria)
YORUBA STATES (present-day Eastern Nigeria)
KINGDOM OF BENIN (present-day Eastern Nigeria)
KANEM & BORNU EMPIRE
HISTORYEMPIRE KANEM & BORNU
9TH CENTURY AD (AD 800s)PASTORALISTS IN KANEM NORTH SHORE LAKE CHAD
KANURI SPEAKERS
11TH CENTURY AD (AD 1000) TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE BROUGHT ISLAM
MAI HUME (AD 1085-97) FIRST TO CONVERT TO ISLAM
PARTICIPATED IN THE SLAVE TRADE TO THE EAST & MARCHED THROUGH DARFUR TO THE NILE
CAPITAL AT NJIMI (TODAY CHAD)
HEIGHT OF POWER AD 1210-1248
1393 MAI UMAR IBN IDRIS MOVED CAPITAL TO BORNU WEST OF LAKE CHAD(DRYING OF THE SAHARA)
ALLIES WITH THE OTTOMAN TURKS WHOSE MERCENARIES TRAINED THE CAVALRY
KANEM BORNU
COURT c1700
HORSEMEN
BORNU LIGHT CAVALRY AND MANINKA-SPEAKING FOOT SOLDIERS
KANEM & BORNU TRADE WITH THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
OTTOMAN EMPIRE IN AFRICA
KANURI GIRL NORTHERN NIGERIA
HAUSACITY STATES
HAUSA CITY STATES
HAUSA SPEAKERS
FIRST CITY STATES AD 1000-1200
WALLED CITY STATES
GOBIR—TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE
KATSINA—IMPORTANT TRADING CENTER
KANO—MANUFACTURING CENTER—WEAVING OF COTTON CLOTH
ZARIA—MAJOR SUPPLIER OF SLAVES TO THE OTHER HAUSA STATES FROM THE BENUE RIVER REGION
SLAVES DO THE HEAVY LABOR INCLUDING THE FARMING reason for Purdah in the region
ENTRANCE TO KANO
YORUBA STATES:OYO
KINGDOM OF BENIN EDO-SPEAKING YORUBA STATE
OYO EMPIRE
YORUBA SPEAKING PEOPLES
IFE DATES AROUND 10TH CENTURY—LEGENDARY KINGDOM
EDGE OF THE SAVANNA—ACCESS TO NIGER RIVER AND THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE
EMPEROR CALLED THE ALAFIN
1. SEMI-DIVINE
2. REQUIRED TO TAKE THE ADVICE OF THE ROYAL FAMILY COUNCIL
1ST ALAFIN OF OYO—ONIGBOGI (EARLY 1500s)
AD 1650-1750 OYO EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT ALAFIN OROMPOTO
WEALTH IN COMMERCE
TRAINED ARMY AND CAVALRY PEAK OF MILITARY POWER 1738 (CONQUERED DAHOMEY IN 1748)
18TH CENTURY AD INCREASED TRADE WITH EUROPEANS
EACH INDIVIDUAL STATE RULED ITSELF—KING CALLED OBA The further away from Oyo the more freedom the Oba had
AD 1770-1789 LOSS OF POWER UNDER ALAFIN ABIODUN
AD 1793 ALAFIN AWOLE DECLINES DUE TO
1.INTERNAL STRIFE,
2.UNHAPPY TRIBUTARY STATES
3.LOSS OF TRADE ROUTES
YORUBA HEARTLAND AT IFE
KINGDOM OF BENIN
EDO SPEAKERS
WARRIOR KING EWUARE AD 1440-1480—PROSPOROUS STATE BETWEEN THE OYO STATE AND THE NIGER RIVER—YORUBA CONNECTION
OBA OF BENIN CONSIDERED DIVINE
RELATED TO THE YORUBA HOLY CITY OF IFE
EWEKA I—1ST OBA OF BENIN ABOUT AD 1300
BENIN HAD A COUNCIL OF CHIEFS–ADVISORS
USED HOSTAGE DIPLOMACY
HEIGHT OF BENIN AD 1440
EWUARE THE GREAT —LONGEST REIGN IN BENIN HISTORY
1.EXTENDED BOUNDARIES
2.HIGHLY ORGANIZED & EFFICIENT ARMY
3.LAST OBA BEFORE EUROPEANS ARRIVE
ATTRACTED EUROPEAN INTEREST BECAUSE OF MILITARY EXPANSION WITHOUT USE OF EUROPEAN WEAPONS
STAYED OUT OF THE LARGE-SCALE SLAVE TRADE UNTIL 18TH CENTURY AD
DECLINE—LOSS OF TRADE TO EUROPEANS TOOK THE TRADE ELSEWHERE AND BECAUSE THEY WOULD NOT TRADE SLAVES
BENIN CITY PALACE
BENIN BRONZE HEAD
BENIN: IVORY GAUNTLETS
BENIN: IVORY PERSONAL MASK
BENIN BRONZE LEOPARD
BENIN: IVORY LEOPARD
BENIN: BRONZE PLAQUE
CENTRAL AFRICA
KINGDOM OF KONGO
KINGDOM OF KONGO
Short Answer #19
SOVEREIGN KINGDOM OF KONGO AD 1390-1857
SEDENTARY FARMERS: Tropical Environment grew plantains, bananas, and coco-yams that had be introduced by Trade c. 1500 BC
SURPLUS OF FOOD & TECHNOLOGY TO CREATE IT: Slash and Burn Agriculture
DIVISION OF LABOR: Had a Standing Army, Blacksmiths
URBANIZATION: Capital M'banza Kongo
CULTURE—No Writing System; GOVERNMENT–State with a King (Manikongo); RELIGION–Polytheism, Oral LITERATURE–passed down from generation to generation, Problem with Monumental Architecture–the buildings were made of wood and in the tropical region there is constant decay.
KINGDOM OF KONGO“LEOPARD KING”
KINGDOM OF KONGOAFTER PORTUGUESE CONTACT
Portuguese King: Manuel I (reigned 1495-1521)
NZINGA NKUWU (Joao I) Kongolese King and son Mvemba
1. Baptized Catholic 1491
2. POLICY: OPEN ACCESS TO THE PORTUGUESE
3. Kongolese Travel to Portugal
4. Portuguese-trained Missionaries
NZINGA MVEMBA 1506-1540 (AFFONSO I)
1. KONGO RENAISSANCE STATE capital at Sao Salvador do Kongo (formerly M'banza Kongo)
2. ACCEPTANCE OF PORTUGUESE CULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
Son DOM HENRIQUE BECAME A CATHOLIC BISHOP 1513 = Bishop of Utica (Pope Julius II 1503-1513)
THE PORTUGUESE UNDERMINE INDIGENOUS AUTHORITY THUS BEGINS THE SLAVE TRADE
Short Answer #19
image1.jpeg
image2.jpeg
image3.jpeg
image4.jpeg
image5.jpeg
image6.jpeg
image7.png
image8.jpeg
image9.jpeg
image10.jpeg
image11.jpeg
image12.jpeg
image13.jpeg
image14.jpeg
image15.jpeg
image16.jpeg
image17.jpeg
image18.jpeg
image19.jpeg
image20.jpeg
image21.jpeg
image22.jpeg
image23.jpeg
image24.jpeg
image25.jpeg
image26.jpeg
image27.jpeg
image28.jpeg
image29.jpeg
image30.jpeg
image31.png
image32.jpeg
image33.jpeg
image34.jpeg
image35.jpeg
image36.png
image37.jpeg
image38.jpeg
image39.jpeg
image40.jpeg
image41.jpeg
image42.png
image43.jpeg
image44.png
image45.jpeg
image46.jpeg
image47.jpeg
image48.png
image49.png
image50.jpeg
image51.png
image52.jpeg
image53.png
image54.png
image55.jpeg
image56.jpeg
image57.jpeg
image58.png
image59.png
image60.png
image61.jpeg
image62.png
image63.jpeg
image64.jpeg
image65.jpeg
image66.jpeg
